Monday, August 31, 2009

Explore the enchanting town of Rangpur,Bangladesh

Rangpur is both a city and a district in the Rajshahi division. The district is quite large and has three municipalities, eight upazilias, 33 wards and 84 union parishads. There are approximately 1519 villages in the district.

The town of Rangpur is situated on the banks of the river Ghagat and is home to one of the three district municipalities. Rangpur city is perhaps best known for its role in the tobacco industry as it serves as the administrative center for all the tobacco-growing in the district and is responsible for the manufacture of cigarettes and cigars. Rangpur city is also renowned for its cotton carpets, which are of an outstanding quality. The city has eight colleges that are affiliated with Rajshahi University, but only just more than half the population is literate.

There are quite a lot of historical attractions to see in the Rangpur district that make it well worth visiting. The Keramatia Mosque is a good place to start. However the three domed Jami Mosque from the Mughal period, the four domed Taraganj Mosque and the spectacular nine domed Radhanagar Mosque, which is also from the Mughal period, are much more impressive. On a more morbid note, there are a number of tombs that are popular with visitors; these include the tombs of Islamic thinker Maulana Keramat Ali Jainpuri, Shah Jalal Bokheri, Ismail Ghazi and Kutub Shah. If you visit these places with a knowledgeable guide you will have the opportunity to find out how these various individuals made an impact on the lives of those around them. For more conventional attractions you can visit the Rangpur Museum, the Rangpur Town Hall and the Rangpur Public Library. The palace remnants of Raja Nilambar, Hari Mandir and Mitha Pukur are also quite amazing to see.

There are many other historical and archaeological treasures to be found in here as well as a lot more to learn about Rangpur. Merely listing all the attractions here will not do any of them any justice as you simply have to see them for yourself. Book your ticket for Rangpur today to enjoy the historical mysteries of this stunning region and its friendly people.

Thursday, August 27, 2009

Scuba diving in Bangladesh

Not many people view Bangladesh as being a great location to go scuba diving. However more and more people are discovering the natural wonders that St Martin's Island has to offer. This small island is located just off the coast of Bangladesh and it is already quite a national treasure.

Scuba diving in Bangladesh is still relatively under-developed. As a mostly Muslim country many tourist-related developments found in other Asian countries have yet to be found in Bangladesh. There are no discotheques, night clubs or places you can go for a drink. But true nature lovers don’t mind one bit, because when you step on to St. Martin's Island, all that is quickly forgotten

Known locally as Narikel Jinjira (Coconut Island), the island is located just 14 km away from the country’s southernmost town of Teknaf. Its beaches are fringed with coconut palms and visitors can walk the entire island in just one day. Bright, blue waters sparkle with untainted purity. This truly is paradise – and not just to the locals who frequent it. Foreigners who have chanced upon this natural treasure quickly return to share with friends. Filip Engsig-Karup, a Danish tour operator, said: "I enjoy bringing people here and they are pleasantly surprised when they see all the beauty. It's a shame this is not more known to the world yet. When I take people from Denmark to Bangladesh, everybody is amazed because the impression they have got about this country is quite different from the reality."

Government officials have already recognized the immense potential that St Martin's Island has with regards to tourism and increasing local revenue. With this in mind, they recently introduced scuba diving and speedboat sailing as part of efforts to attract more tourists. Before long, visitors should also be able to enjoy water skiing and other sporting facilities when visiting this little piece of paradise. However these changes are also made with a sense of caution; officials know that they will also need to put strict conservation measures in place to prevent people from harming the island’s nesting turtle populations – either from disturbing the nesting process or by accidentally or purposefully destroying nests. They also need to prevent divers from breaking off pieces of the dazzling coral found beneath the surface of the water. However the island is simply too beautiful to be kept a secret and so in the meantime it seems that efforts to build tourism will continue at a spanking pace.

Play a round at a Golf Course in Bangladesh

Golf is a popular sport throughout the world. It is often on golf courses that business deals are struck. Men and women worldwide enjoy a round of golf with friends and associates and Bangladesh is certainly no exception. There are a few golf courses in Bangladesh that will keep golfers occupied and ensure that they have a great time. Picture yourself playing a round of golf in Bangladesh, with beautiful trees surrounding you and birds calling across the green grass.

Kurmitola Golf Club in Dhaka is quite a challenging course. With tree lined fairways, the scenic beauty of this course is amazing. Various well-known golf competitions have been and continue to be held here, including the American Cup Trophy of 2005. Members of the Dhaka Oddball Golf Society are a common sight on this Bangladeshi golf course. They can be seen each week competing for what they refer to as the 'Chief of the Pack'. About an hour drive away from Dhaka is the Savar Golf Club. The golf course in Chittagong is also scenically situated in the hills.

Monu Valley Golf Club often adds a bit of 'excitement' to your round of golf. Situatated amidst rubber groves, banyan trees and quiet paddies, you may be fortunate enough to have a Bengal tiger cross the fairways whilst you look on. Soi Dao Highlands golf course is another unique course. Elephants, deer and wild boar are protected in the area whilst villagers can be seen fishing in bodies of water or searching for food around the course.

When traveling through this fascinating country, be sure to include a round of golf at one of Bangladesh's golf courses on your itinerary.

Kurmitola Golf Club
Dhaka Cantonment
Dhaka
Email: kgcdhaka@hotmail.com, kgcdhaka@yahoo.com
Phone: +88-02-8752520,+88-02-8752526,+88-02-8752523
Fax: +88-02-8752521
Tee off time: 6:00am to 6:00pm (Summer); 6:00am to 5:00pm (Winter)

Bangladesh Travel Attractions

Tourist attractions in Bangladesh abound. Throughout the country there are many fascinating things to see and exciting things to do. Arriving in Dhaka, your adventure can begin straight away. Pay a visit to the Old City where you will also be astounded by the bustling river life of Buriganga and the bright pink palace of Ahsan Manzil.The top attraction in Bangladesh's Dhaka is Lalbagh Fort.

Whilst traveling through the city of Chittagong, visitors will come across the lovely structures of Qadam Mubarak Mosque and Shahi Jama-e-Masjid as well as the intriguing Ethnological Museum.

Bangladesh's Mainimati Ruins, a renowned seat of Buddhist culture between the 7th and 12th centuries, should not be missed. Visitors should also include the Sompuri Vihara, dating back to the 8th century, on their itinerary. Nature lovers will definitely want to stop at Bangladesh's natural attraction: Sundarbans National Park. This park boasts the world's largest mangrove belt. There are just a few of the wonderful attractions in Bangladesh. You will discover many more when visiting this marvelous country.

Discover the wonderful culture of Bangladesh and it's people

Bangladesh has a rich, diverse culture. Its deeply rooted heritage is thoroughly reflected in its architecture, dance, literature, music, painting and clothing. The three primary religions of Bangladesh (Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam) have had a great influence on its culture and history.

Bangalees have a rich fictional legacy, with the first available form of literature being over a thousand years old. Bengali literature developed considerably during the medieval period with the rise of popular poets such as Chandi Das, Daulat Kazi an Alaol.

The traditional music of Bangladesh is very much the same as that of the Indian sub-continent. The music in Bangladesh can be divided into three main categories: classical, modern and folk. Both vocal and instrumental classical music is enjoyed in Bangladesh. Ustad Ayet Ali Khan and Ustad Alauddin are two famous classical instrumental players that are internationally known. Modern music is becoming more popular and is practiced widely. Contemporary, pop songs and bands are also enjoying more widespread fame, but are mainly popular in the regions of Dhaka City.

Tribal dances are very popular among the Bangalees. The countryside girls are in the habit of dancing to popular folk music. Their dances require no regulations as such, just a small amount of courage and a big amount of rhythm. Popular songs like Shari and Jari are presented with the accompanying dance of both male and female performers.

Drama and theatre is an old tradition that is very popular in Bangladesh. More than a dozen theater groups in Dhaka City have been regularly staging locally written plays for hundreds of years. Many have also started adopted some plays from European writers. Baily Road in Dhaka is known as “Natak Para” and this is one location where drama shows are regularly held. Many shows are also held at the Dhaka University.

Another important aspect of the culture of Bangladesh is clothing. Bangladeshi woman usually wear Saris, made of the world famous and expensive, finely embroidered quilted patchwork cloth produced by the village woman. Woman will traditionally wear their hair in a twisted bun, which is called the “Beni style”. Hindus will traditionally wear Dhuty for religious purposes. These days most men of Bangladesh wear shirts and pants.

Tuesday, May 19, 2009

Tourism in Bangladesh(Historical Places)

National Memorial


Located at Savar, about 35 km from Dhaka, the national memorial was designed by architect Moinul Hossain. It is dedicated to the sacred memory of the millions of unknown martyrs' of the war of liberation in 1971.


Central Shahid Minar


Symbol of Bengali nationalism, this monument was built to commemorate the martyrs' of the historic language movement on 21st February, 1952. The day is also now observed as International Mother Language Day across the world. Hundreds and thousands of barefooted people with floral wreaths and bouquets gather at this monument from the first hour of 21st February every year to pay homage to the martyrs.


Lalbagh Fort


The fort was built in 1678 by Prince Mohammad Azam, son of Mughal emperor Aurangozeb. The fort was the scene of a bloody battle during the first war of independence (1857) when 250 soldiers stationed here backed by people revolted against british forces. Besides the main structure, Lalbagh Fort also has a number of other buildings and monuments such as the tomb of Pari Bibi, Lalbagh mosque, audience hall and hammam khana (bathing place) of Nawab Shaista Khan now housing a museum.


Martyred Intellectual Memorial


Located at Mirpur, the memorial was built to commemorate the intellectuals who were killed in 1971 by the Pakistan's occupation forces just two days ahead of the Victory Day.


National Poet's Grave


Revolutionary poet Kazi Nazrul Islam died on 29th August 1976 and was buried here. The graveyard is adjacent to the Dhaka University Central Mosque.


Old High Court Building


Originally built as the residence of the British Governor, the High Court Building illustrates a fine blend of European and mughal architecture. The building is situated North of the Curzon Hall of Dhaka Universiry.


Sonargaon


About 29 km. from Dhaka, Sonargaon dating back to 13th century is one of the oldest capitals of Bengal. A folk-art and craft museum has been established here. Among the ancient monuments still intact are the tomb of Sultan Abdul Alla and a beautiful mosque in Goaldi village.


Natore - Dighapatiya Rajbari (Palace)


Natore lies about 40 km. from Rajshahi and is an old seat of the Maharajah of Dighapatiya, now serving as the Uttara Ganabhaban (The Official northern region residance of the President of the Republic). The palace has large, spacious grounds and is surrounded by a fine moat. The palace has well-equipped guest-house, an imposing gateway and a fine garden decorated with statues of white marble.


World War II Cemetery


In this well-preserved cemetery,in Chittagong lie burried over 700 soldiers from Commonwealth countries and Japan, who died during the Second World War.


Shilaidaha Kuthibari, Kushtia


The beautiful mansion carries memory of nobel laureate poet Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) who made frequent visit to this place and used to stay here, in connection with administration of his Zamindari and enriched Bengali literature through his writtings during that time. It is located at a distance of about 20 km. from Kushtia town.


Sagordari, Jessore


The birth place of the celebrated poet Micheal Modhusudan Dutta. by most accounts the first modern poet of Bangla Literature. Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation has built a rest-house and other tourist facilities in the place.


Mujibnagar Memorial

Located at a distance of about 7 km. from the town of Meherpur. The beautiful memorial dedicated to the first provisional revolutionary government of Bangladesh that was declared here on 14 April 1971 during the liberation war.


Trishal


It is the place where innumerable boyhood memories of our national poet Kazi Nazrul Islam are found around. It is situated 20 km. away from Mymensingh town. Nazrul was a student of Darrirumpur High School under Trisal police station. Here a cultural organization styled as Nazrul

Academy has been established in memory of the great poet. Rebel poet Kazi Nazrul, the shelley of Bangladesh is in eternal sleep besides Dhaka University Central Mosque.


Gandhi Asram


Situated about 23 km. north-west of Choumuhani town and 2 km. east of Chatkhil at Jayag in Noakhali district. This asram was established in the memory of historic visit of the Mahatma Gandhi to Noakhali and devoted to his ideology. In 1946-47 Mahatma the protagonist of Ahimsa ideology visited this region with a view to preach peace. Historical Charka and other valuables used by Mahatma are preserved in this asram and those evoke deep respect to the unique memories of the great soul.


Ahsan Manzil Museum, Dhaka


On the bank of river Buriganga in Dhaka the Pink majestic Ahsan Manzil has been renovated and turned into a museum recently. It is an epitome of the nation's rich cultural heritage. It is the home of Nawab of Dhaka and a silent spectator to many events.
Today's renovated Ahsan Manzil a monument of immense historical beauty. It has 31 rooms with a huge dome atop which can be seen from miles

around. It now has 23 galleries in 31 rooms displaying of traits, furniture and household articles and utensils used by the Nawab.


Shahjadpur Kuthibari


About 75 km. from Pabna town. It is also a historical place connected with the frequent visits of poet Rabindranath Tagore.

Tourism in Bangladesh(Archaeological Sites)


Mainamati
The seat of lost dynasties


About eight km to the west of Comilla town and 114 km South-east of Dhaka lies the low hills known as Mainamati-Lalmai ridge an extensive centre of Buddhist culture. On the slopes of these hills lie scattered a treasure of information about the early Buddhist civilization (8th to 12th century). At Salban in the middle of the ridge, excavations laid bare a large Buddhist Vihara (monastery) and imposing central shrine.

It has revealed valuable information of the rule of the Chandra and Deva dynasties which flourished here from the 8th to 12th century A. D. The whole range of hillocks run for about 18th km. and is studded with more than 50 sites. A site museum housed the archaeological finds which include terracotta plaques, bronze statues and casket, coins, jewellery, utensils, pottery and votive stupas embossed with Buddhist inscription.

Museum is open Sunday-Friday and closed on Saturday.


Mahasthangarh
The oldest archaeological site


Located at a distance of 18 km north of Bogra town, Mahasthanragh is the oldest archaeological site of Bangladesh on the western bank of river Karatoa. The spectacular site is an imposing landmark in the area having a fortified long enclosure. Beyond the fortified area, other ancient ruins fan out within a semi circle of about 8 km. radius. Several isolated mounds, the local names of which are Govinda Bhita Temple, Khodai Pathar Mound, Mankalir Kunda, Parsuramer Bedi, Jiyat Kunda etc. surround the fortified city. This 3rd century B. C. archaeological site is still held to be of great sanctity by the Hindus. Every year (mid-April) and once in every 12 years (December) thousands of Hindu devotees join the bathing ceremony on the bank of river Karatoa. A visit to the Mahasthangarh site museum will open up for one a wide variety of antiquities, ranging from terracotta objects to gold ornaments and coins recovered from the site. Also noteworthy are the shrine of Shah Sultan Bulkhi Mahisawary and Gokul Medh in the neighbourhood of Mahasthangarh.


Paharpur
The largest Buddhist seat of learning


Paharpur is a small village 5 km west of Jamalganj railway station in the greater Rajshahi district where the remains of the most important and the largest known monastery, south of the Himalayas has been excavated. This 8th century A.D. archaeological find covers approximately an area of 27 acres of land. The entire establishment, occupying a quadrangular court, measuring more than 900 ft. and from 12 ft to 15 ft in height with elaborate gateway complex on the north, there are 45 cells on the north and 44 in each of other three sides with a total number of 177 rooms. The architecture of the pyramidal cruciform temple is profoundly influenced by those of south-east Asia, especially Myanmar and Java. It had taken its name from a high mound, which like Pahar or hillock. A site museum houses the representative collection of objects recovered from the area. The excavated findings have also been preserved at the Varendra Research Museum at Rajshahi. The antiquities of the museum include terracotta plaque, images of different gods and goddesses, potteries, coins, inscriptions, ornamental bricks and other minor clay objects. It has been declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Interested tourists may avail package tours offered by Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation to visit Bangladesh.


For details please contact Manager (tours) for prices and booking.
Phone:(880 - 2) 9899288-91, 8811109, 8821548
Fax: (880 - 2) 8811150
e-mail : info@bangladeshtourism.gov.bd

or any Tourist information Center.


Sitakunda
Chandranath Hindu Temple


It is approximately 37 km far from Chittagong city. This is famous for Chandranath Hindu Temple - one of the oldest temples in the subcontinent. There is also Buddhist Temple having a footprint of Lord Buddha. These places particularly the hilltops are regarded as very sacred by the hindus and buddhist. Shiva Chaturdashi (14th) festivals is held every year in February when thousands of pilgrims assemble which lasts for ten days. There is also a hot-water spring 5 km to the north of Sitakunda.


Sri Chaitanya Temple
Hindu Temple


About 500 years old famous temple of Sri Chaitanya Dev is located at Dhaka Dakhin nearly 45 km south-east from Sylhet town. The place is revered for being the ancestral home of the famous Vaishnava saint. Yearly fair is organized on the fullmoon day of the bangla month Falgun. Hundreds and thousand of devotees from home and abroad attend this colorful fair.

Tourism in Bangladesh

Kuakata


A rare scenic spot on the southernmost tip of Bangladesh in Patuakhali district Kuakata has a wide sandy beach from where one can see both the sunrise and sunset. Kuakata is located at a distance of
70 km. from the district headquarters of Patuakhali.

Parjatan Holiday Homes at Kuakata offers a number of facilities for the tourists. This sandy beach slopes gently to the Bay of Bengal and bathing here is as pleasant as is diving or simply lazing on the beach. The virgin beaches of Kuakata, lined by coconut trees, are a sanctuary for migratory winter birds. Kuakata has a picture perfect setting where life is laid back and time seems unhurried. The Bay is alive with colorful sail boats, surfing, fishing or walking on the beach - Kuakata offers something for everyone.

Kuakata is a place of pilgrimage for the Hindu and Buddhist communities. Devotees arrive here during the festival of ' Raash Purnima' and 'Maghi Purnima'-- two sacred full moon festivals. A bath in the Bay is a part of the ritual. Fairs are also held where one can buy handloom and other handicraft items. A visit to a Rakhyne family and the hundred year old Buddist temple should be on each visitor's itinerary.

Kuakata has road communication with Dhaka, but the journey may be long and a bit stressful. A much easier way is to go to Barisal by air and from there travel by road or water to Patuakhali or Kuakata. BRTC runs a direct bus service from Dhaka to Kuakata via Barisal. Besides, Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation may organize guided package tours from Dhaka to Kuakata on demand.

Tourism in Bangladesh

Cox's Bazar


Miles of golden sands, towering cliffs, surfing waves, rare conch shells, colorful Pagodas, Buddhist Temples and delightful sea-food - all this makes what Cox's Bazar is today , the tourist capital of Bangladesh. The World's longest uninterrupted (120 km.) beach slopes here down to the blue waters of the Bay of Bengal against the picturesque background of a chain of hills covered with deep green forests.

Cox's Bazar is one of the most attractive tourist spots in the world. The warm, shark free, waters are good for bathing and swimming & while the sandy beaches offer opportunities for sun-bathing.

The beauty of the setting-sun behind the waves of the sea is simply captivating. Locally made cigars and handloom products of the tribal Rakhyne families are good buys.

Located at a distance of 152 km. south of Chittagong, Cox's Bazar is connected both by air and road from Dhaka and Chittagong.

Visit to the fascinating picnic spots at Himchari and Teknaf, the Buddhist Temple at Ramu and nearby islands of Sonadia and St. Martin's, Inani Beach and Moheshkhali are certain to become unforgettable experiences for every visitor.


Inani Beach


Inani is within Ukhia Thana, 35 km. to the south of Cox's Bazar. With green hills to the east, the golden beach of Inani casts a music spell on anyone stepping on to its fine golden sands. The clean blue waters of the Bay are ideal for swimming.

St. Martin Island


Forty-eight kilometers from Teknaf, St. Martin's is the country's only coral island and an unspoilt paradise. Named Narikel Jinjira (Coconut Island) by the locals, the dumbbell shaped St.Martin's has an area of only 8 sq. km. which reduces to about 5 sq. km. and in places from 1-4 meters during high tide.

The Cox's Bazar Holiday Complex of Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation on the island is an shore tourist resort having comfortable accommodation, catering, sightseeing and other facilities.




Monday, May 18, 2009

History of Bangladesh

Ancient period

Pre-historic Bengal

Stone tools provide the earliest evidence of human settlements. Prehistoric stone implements have been discovered in various parts of West Bengal in the districts of Midnapur, Bankura and Burdwan. But it is difficult to determine, even approximately, the time when people using them first settled in Bengal. It might have taken place ten thousand years (or even more) ago. The original settlers spoke non-Aryan languages— they may have spoken Austric or Austro-Asiatic languages like the languages of the present-day Kola, Bhil, Santal, Shabara, and Pulinda peoples. At a subsequent age, peoples speaking languages from two other language families— Dravidian and Tibeto-Burman—seem to have settled in Bengal. Archaeological discoveries during the 1960s furnished evidence of a degree of civilisation in certain parts of Bengal as far back as the beginning of the first millennium BC, perhaps even earlier. The discoveries at Pandu Rajar Dhibi in the valley of the Ajay river (near Bolpur) in Burdwan district and in several other sites on the Ajay, Kunar and Kopai rivers have thrown fresh light on Bengal's prehistory. Pandu Rajar Dhibi represents the ruins of a trading township, which carried on trade not only with the interior regions of India, but also—possibly indirectly—with the countries of the Mediterranean.

Proto-History

Mahasthangarh is the oldest archaeological site in Bangladesh. It dates back to 700 BCE and was the ancient capital of the Pundra Kingdom.

Hindu scriptures such as the Mahabharata suggest that Bengal was divided among various tribes or kingdoms, including the Nishadas and the tribes known as the Janapadas: Vanga (south Bengal), Pundra (north Bengal), and Rarh/Suhma (West Bengal) according to their respective totems. These Hindu sources, written by Indo-Aryans in what are now Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, suggest that the peoples of Bengal were not Indo-Aryans. However, Jain scriptures identify Vanga and Anga in Bengal as Indo-Aryan. While western Bengal, as part of Magadha, formed part of Indo-Aryan civilization by the 7th century BCE, the Nanda Dynasty was the first historical state to unify all of Bengal under Indo-Aryan rule.

Bengal in mythology

Not much is known about this civilization. Some deprecatory references indicate that the early people in Bengal were different in ethnicity and culture from the Vedic beyond the boundary of Aryandom and who were classed as 'Dasyus'. The Bhagavata Purana classes them as sinful people while Dharmasutra of Bodhayana prescribes expiatory rites after a journey among the Pundras and Vangas.Mahabharata speaks of Paundraka Vasudeva who was lord of the Pundrasand who allied himself with Jarasandha against Krishna.Mahabharata also speaks of Bengali kings caled Chitrasena and Sanudrasena who were defeated by Bhima, Kalidas mentions Raghu defeated a coalition of Vanga kings who were defeated by Raghu and Raghu established a victory column in the Gangetic delta.

Overseas colonization

Bengal had overseas trade relations with Java, Sumatra and Suvarnabhumi (in modern Thailand). According to Mahavamsa, Vijaya Singha, a Vanga prince, conquered Lanka (modern day Sri Lanka) in 544 BC and gave the name "Sinhala" to the country. Bengali people migrated to the Malay Archipelago and Suvarnabhumi (in modern Thailand) establishing their own colonies over there.

Gangaridai Empire

Asia in 323BC, the Nanda Empire and Gangaridai Empire in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbors.

Though north and west Bengal were part of the Magadhan empire southern Bengal thrived and became powerful with her overseas trades. In 326 BCE, with the invasion of Alexander the Great the region again came to prominence. The Greek and Latin historians suggested that Alexander the Great withdrew from India anticipating the valiant counter attack of the mighty Gangaridai empire that were located in the Bengal region. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return. Diodorus Siculus mentions Gangaridai to be the largest and the most powerful empire in India whose king possessed an army of 20,000 horses, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots and 4,000 elephants trained and equipped for war. The allied forces of Gangaridai and Prasii (Nanda Empire) were preparing a massive counter attack against the forces of Alexander on the banks of Ganges. Gangaridai according to the Greek accounts kept on flourishing at least up to the 1st century AD.

Early Middle Ages

The pre-Gupta period of Bengal is shrouded with obscurity. Before the conquest of Samudragupta Bengal was divided into two kingdoms: Pushkarana and Samatata. Chandragupta II had to defeat a confederacy of Vanga kings. Bengal became a part of the Gupta Empire.

Gauda Kingdom

By the sixth century, the Gupta Empire ruling over the northern Indian subcontinent was largely broken up. Eastern Bengal became the Vanga Kingdom while the Gauda kings rose in the west with their capital at Karnasuvarna (Murshidabad). Shashanka, a vassal of the last Gupta Empire became independent and unified the smaller principalities of Bengal (Gaur, Vanga, Samatata) and vied for regional power with Harshavardhana in northern India. But this burst of Bengali power did not last beyond his death, as Bengal descended afterwards into a period marked by disunity and foreign invasion.

The Pala Empire

Pala Empire under Dharmapala
Pala Empire under Dharmapala
Pala Empire under Dharmapala

Pala Empire under Devapala

The first independent Buddhist king of Bengal, Gopala, came to power in 750 in Gaur by election. This event is recognized as one of the first democratic elections in South Asia since the time of the Mahā Janapadas. Gopala founded the Buddhist Pala dynasty which lasted for four centuries (750-1120 AD), ushering in a period of relative stability and prosperity.

Somapura Mahavihara in Paharpur, Bangladesh is the greatest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian Subcontinent built by Dharmapala.

At its peak, under Dharmapala, the empire extended into much of Bihar and once more wrestled for control of the subcontinent. He conquered Bhoja (Berar), Matsya (Jaipur), Madra (Central Punjab), Kuru (Thaneswar), Yadu (Mathura and Dwaraka), Avanti (Malwa), Yavana (Muslims of Sindh/Multan), Gandhara (Kabol valley), Kambojja and Kira (Kangra).

Devapala, successor of Dharmapala, expanded his empire farther up to Assam and Utkala in the east, Kamboja (modern day Afghanistan) in the north-west and Deccan in the south. According to Pala copperplate inscription He exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the pride of the Huna, and humbled the lords of Gurjara, Pratiharas and the Dravidas.

Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire.

The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Never had the Bengali people reached such height of power and glory and never had they influenced the outside world to that extent. Palas were responsible for the introduction of Mahayana Buddhism in Tibet, Bhutan and Myanmar. The pre-dominant Pala sculptures and the proto-Bangla scripts of the Sailendra Empire (Malaya, Java, Sumatra) of the late 8th century attest that the Sailendra dynasty was connected to Bengal.

The death of Devapala ended the period of ascendancy of the Pala Empire and several independent dynasties and kingdoms emerged during this time, including the Khadgas, Devas, the Chandras, and Varmanas.

Mahipala I rejuvenated the reign of the Palas. He recovered north Bengal from the Kambojas and survived the invasions of Rajendra Chola and the Chalukyas. Mahipala I did not join the Hindu confederacy against Mahmud of Ghazni.

After Mahipala I the Pala dynasty again saw its decline until Ramapala, the last great ruler of the dynasty, managed to retrieve the position of the dynasty to some extent. He crushed the endra rebellion and extended his empire farther to Kamarupa, Orissa and Northern India.

Sena dynasty

The Palas were followed by the Sena dynasty who brought the East and West Bengal under one ruler only during the twelfth century.Vijaya sena the founder of this dynasty defeated the last pala emperor Madanpala and established his reign.Vallal sena introduced caste system in Bengal.the last king of this dynasty Lakshman sena was defeated by the Turks and fled to eastern Bengal were he ruled few more years. The Sena dynasty brought a revival of Hinduism and cultivated Sanskrit literature.

Late Middle Ages - arrival of Islam

Islam made its first appearance in Bengal during the twelfth century AD when Sufi missionaries arrived. Later occasional Muslim invaders reinforced the process of conversion by building mosques, madrassas and Sufi Khanqahs. Beginning in 1202 a military commander from the Delhi Sultanate, Ikhtiar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiar Khilji, overran Bihar and Bengal as far east as Rangpur, Bogra and the Brahmaputra River. The defeated Laksman Sen and his two sons moved to a place then called Vikramapur (Present Munsiganj district), where their diminished dominion lasted until the late thirteenth century.

Khilji maliks

The period after Bakhtiar Khilji's death in 1206 devolved into infighting among the Khiljis - representative of a pattern of succession struggles and intra-empire intrigues during later Turkish regimes. Ghiyasuddin Iwaz Khalji prevailed and extended the Sultan's domain south to Jessore and made the eastern Bang province a tributary. The capital was made at Lakhnauti on the Ganges near the older Bengal capital of Gaur (Malda district of West Bengal, India). He managed to make Kamarupa, Orissa and Trihut pay tribute to him. But he was later defeated by Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish.

Mameluk rule

The weak successors of Iltutmish encouraged the local governors to declare independence. Bengal was sufficiently remote from Delhi that its governors would declare independence on occasion, styling themselves as Sultans of Bengal. It was during this time that Bengal earned the name "Bulgakpur" (land of the rebels). Tughral Togun Khan added Oudh and Bihar to Bengal. Mughisuddin Yuzbak also conquered Bihar and Oudh from Delhi but was killed during an unsuccessful expedition in Assam.Two Turkish attempts to push east of the broad Jamuna and Brahmaputra rivers were repulsed, but a third led by Mughisuddin Tughral conquered the Sonargaon area south of Dhaka to Faridpur, bringing the Sen Kingdom officially to an end by 1277. Mughisuddin Tughral repulsed two massive attacks of the sultanate of Delhi before finally being defeated and killed by Ghiyas ud din Balban.

Mahmud Shahi dynasty

But Balban's own Nasiruddin Bughra khan declared independence in Bengal. Thus Bengal regained her independence back. Nasiruddin Bughra Khan and his successors ruled Bengal for 23 years finally being incorporated into Delhi Sultanate by Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq.

Ilyas Shahi dynasty

Sixty Dome Mosque in Mosque city of Bagerhat was built in the 15th century and is the largest historical mosque in Bangladesh, as well as a World Heritage site.

Shamsuddin Iliyas Shah founded an independent dynasty that lasted from 1342-1487 which successfully repulsed attempts by Delhi to rein them in. They continued to reel in the territory of modern-day Bengal, reaching to Khulna in the south and Sylhet in the east. The sultans advanced civic institutions and became more responsive and "native" in their outlook, cut loose from Delhi. Considerable architectural projects were completed in Gaur including the massive Adina Mosque and the 1479 Darasbari Mosque which still stands in Bangladesh near the border. The Sultans of Bangalah were patrons of Bengali literature and began a process in which a common Bengali culture and identity would coalesce.

The Ilyas Shahi Dynasty was interrupted by an uprising of the Hindus under Ganesh. However the Ilyas Shahi dynasty was restored by Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah, which was finally overthrown by the Habshi (Abyssinian) slaves of the sultanate.

Hussain Shahi dynasty

The Habshi rule gave way to the Hussain Shahi dynasty that ruled from 1494-1538. Alauddin Hussain Shah, considered as the greatest of all the sultans of Bengal for the cultural renaissance during his reign, conquered Kamarupa, Kamata, Jajnagar, Orissa and extended the sultanate all the way to the port of Chittagong, which witnessed the arrival of the first Portuguese merchants.

Nasiruddin Nusrat Shah gave refuge to the Afghan lords during the invasion of Babur though he remained neutral. However Nusrat Shah made a treaty with Babur and saved Bengal from a Mughal invasion.

The last Sultan of the dynasty, who continued to rule from Gaur, had to contend with rising Afghan activity on his northwestern border. Eventually, the Afghans broke through and sacked the capital in 1538 where they remained for several decades until the arrival of the Mughals.

Pashtun rule

[edit] Suri dynasty

Sher Shah Suri established the Sur dynasty in Bengal. After the battle of Chausa he declared himself independent Sultan of Bengal and Bihar. Sher Shah was the only Muslim Sultan of Bengal to establish an empire in northern India.The Delhi sultan Islam Shah appointed Muhammad Khan sur as the governor of Bengal. After the death of Islam Shah Muhammad Khan Sur became independent. Muhammad Khan Sur was followed by Ghyiasuddin Bahadur Shah and Ghyiasuddin Jalal shah. The Pashtun rule in Bengal remained for 44 years. Their most impressive achievement was Sher Shah's construction of the Grand Trunk Road connecting Sonargaon, Delhi and Peshawar.

[edit] Karrani dynasty

The Sur dynasty was followed by the Karrani dynasty. Sulaiman Karrani annexed Orissa to the Muslim sultanate permanently. Daud Shah Karrani declared independence from Akbar which led to four years of bloody war between the Mughals and the Pashtuns. The Mughal onslaught against the Afghan Sultan ended with the battle of Rajmahal in 1576, led by Khan Jahan. However, the Pashtun and the local landlords (Baro Bhuyans) led by Isa Khan resisted the Mughal invasion.

Mughal period

The Lalbagh Fort was developed by Shaista Khan.

Bengal came once more under the suzerainty of Delhi as the Mughals conquered it in 1576. Not far from Sonargaon, Dhaka rose from the mists of obscurity as a Mughal provincial capital. But it remained remote and thus a difficult to govern region--especially the section east of the Brahmaputra River--outside the mainstream of Mughal politics. The Bengali ethnic and linguistic identity further crystallized during this period, since the whole of Bengal was united under an able and long-lasting administration. Furthermore its inhabitants were given sufficient autonomy to cultivate their own customs and literature.

In 1612, during Emperor Jahangir's reign, the defeat of Sylhet completed the Mughal conquest of Bengal, except for Chittagong. At this time the capital was established at Dhaka. Chittagong was later annexed in order to stifle Arakanese raids from the east. A well-known Dhaka landmark, Lalbagh Fort, was built during Aurangzeb's sovereignty.

History repeated itself as the frontier Bengal province broke off from a Delhi-based empire around the time Aurangzeb's death in 1707. Murshid Quli Khan ended Dhaka's century of grandeur as he shifted the capital to Murshidabad ushering in a series of independent Bengal Nawabs. Nawab Alivardi Khan showed military skill during his wars with the Marathas. He completely routed the Marathas from Bengal. He crushed an uprising of the Afghans in Bihar and made the British pay 150,000 Tk for blocking Mughal and Armenian trade ships.

Europeans in Bengal

Portuguese traders and missionaries were the first Europeans to reach Bengal in the latter part of the fifteenth century. They were followed by representatives of the Dutch, the French, and the British East India Company). The Mughal Subahdar of Bengal Kasim Khan Mashadi completely destroyed the Portuguese forces in the Battle of Hoogly (1632). About 10,000 Portuguese men and women died in the battle and 4,400 were sent captive to Delhi.

During Aurangzeb's reign, the local Nawab sold three villages, including one then known as Calcutta, to the British. Calcutta was Britain's first foothold in Bengal and remained a focal point of their economic activity. The British gradually extended their commercial contacts and administrative control beyond Calcutta to the rest of Bengal. Job Charnock was one of the first dreamers of a British empire in Bengal. He almost waged war against the Mughal authority of Bengal which led to the Anglo-Mughal war of Bengal (1686-1690). Shaista Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, defeated the British in the battles of Hoogly, Baleshwar, and Hijly and expelled the British from Bengal. Captain William Heath with a naval fleet moved towards Chittagong but it was a failure and he had to retreat to Madras.

British rule

The Bengal Presidency of British India at its greatest extent in 1858.

The British East India Company gained official control of Bengal following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. This was the first conquest, in a series of engagements that ultimately lead to the expulsion of other European competitors, the defeat of the Mughals and the consolidation of the subcontinent under the rule of a corporation -- a unique event in imperialistic history. Kolkata (Anglicized as "Calcutta") on the Hooghly became a major trading port for Bamboo, Tea, Sugar cane, Spices, Cotton, Muslin and Jute produced in Dhaka, Rajshahi, Khulna and Kushtia and parts of the rest of Bengal.

Scandals and the bloody rebellion known as the Sepoy Mutiny prompted the British government to intervene in the affairs of the East India Company. In 1858, authority in India was transferred from the Company to the crown and the rebellion was brutally suppressed. Rule of India was organized under a Viceroy and continued a pattern of economic exploitation. Famine racked the subcontinent many times, including at least two major famines in Bengal. The British Raj was politically organized into seventeen provinces--of which Bengal was one of the most significant--most headed by a governor. For a brief period in the early twentieth century, an abortive attempt was made to divide Bengal into two zones, West Bengal and East Bengal & Assam.

Creation of Pakistan

As the independence movement throughout British-controlled India began in the late nineteenth century gained momentum during the twentieth century, Bengali politicians played an active role in Mohandas Gandhi's Congress Party and Mohammad Ali Jinnah's Muslim League, exposing the opposing forces of ethnic and religious nationalism. By exploiting the latter, the British probably intended to distract the independence movement, for example by partitioning Bengal in 1905 along religious lines. The split only lasted for seven years. At first the Muslim League sought only to ensure minority rights in the future nation. In 1940 the Muslim League passed the Lahore Resolution which envisaged one or more Muslim majority states in South Asia. Non-negotiable was the inclusion of the Muslim parts of Punjab and Bengal in these proposed states. The stakes grew as a new Viceroy Lord Mountbatten was appointed expressly for the purpose of effecting a graceful British exit. Communal violence in Noakhali and Calcutta sparked a surge in support for the Muslim League, which won a majority of Bengal's Muslim seats in the 1946 election. Accusations have been made that Hindu and Muslim nationalist instigators were involved in the latter incident. At the last moment Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Sarat Chandra Bose came up with the idea of an independent and unified Bengal state, which was endorsed by Jinnah. This idea was vetoed by the Indian National Congress.

British India was partitioned and the independent states of India and Pakistan were created in 1947; the region of Bengal was divided along religious lines. The predominantly Muslim eastern half of Bengal became the East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan) state of Pakistan and the predominantly Hindu western part became the Indian state of West Bengal.

Pakistan's history from 1947 to 1971 was marked by political instability and economic difficulties. In 1956 a constitution was at last adopted, making the country an "Islamic republic within the Commonwealth". The nascent democratic institutions foundered in the face of military intervention in 1958, and the government imposed martial law between 1958 and 1962, and again between 1969 and 1971.

Almost from the advent of independent Pakistan in 1947, frictions developed between East and West Pakistan, which were separated by more than 1,000 miles of Indian territory. East Pakistanis felt exploited by the West Pakistan-dominated central government. Linguistic, cultural, and ethnic differences also contributed to the estrangement of East from West Pakistan.

When Mohammad Ali Jinnah died in September 1948, Khwaja Nazimuddin became the Governor General of Pakistan while Nurul Amin was appointed the Chief Minister of East Bengal. Nurul Amin continued as the Chief Minister of East Bengal until 2 April 1954. The abolition of the Zamindari system in East Bengal (1950) and the Language Movement were two most important events during his tenure.

The Bengali Language Movement

Bengali Language Movement procession march held on 21 February 1952 in Dhaka.

The question as to what would be the state language of Pakistan was raised immediately after its creation. The central leaders and the Urdu-speaking intellectuals of Pakistan declared that Urdu would be the state language of Pakistan, just as Hindi was the state language of India. However, Bengalis strongly resisted attempts to impose Urdu as the sole official language of Pakistan, and the students and intellectuals of East Pakistan, demanded that Bengali (Bangla) be made one of the state languages, arguing that it was in any case the native language of the majority (54% native speakers as opposed to 7% native Urdu speakers) in the whole of Pakistan.

The Bengali Language Movement began in 1948 and reached its climax in a demonstration on 21 February 1952 at which several demonstrators were killed by police. After a lot of controversy over the language issue, the final demand from East Pakistan was that Bangla must be the official language and the medium of instruction in East Pakistan, and that for the central government it would be one of the state languages along with Urdu. The first movement on this issue was mobilised by Tamaddun Majlish headed by Professor Abul Kashem. Gradually many other non-communal and progressive organisations joined the movement, which finally turned into a mass movement, and ended in the adoption of Bengali as one of the state languages of Pakistan.

Politics: 1954 - 1970

The first election for East Bengal Provincial Assembly was held between 8 March and 12 March 1954. The Awami Muslim League, Krishak-Sramik Party and Nezam-e-Islam formed the United Front, on the basis of 21-points agenda.

Notable pledges contained in the 21-points were:

  • making Bengali one of the main state languages
  • autonomy for the province
  • reforms in education
  • independence of the judiciary
  • making the legislative assembly effective

The United Front won 215 out of 237 Muslim seats in the election. The ruling Muslim League got only nine seats. Khilafat-E-Rabbani Party got one, while the independents got twelve seats. Later, seven independent members joined the United Front while one joined the Muslim League.

There were numerous reasons for the debacle of the Muslim League. Above all, the Muslim League regime angered all sections of the people of Bengal by opposing the demand for recognition of Bangla as one of the state languages and by ordering the massacre of 1952.

The United Front got the opportunity to form the provincial government after winning absolute majority in the 1954 election. Of the 222 United Front seats, the Awami Muslim League had won 142, Krishak-Sramik Party 48, Nezam-i-Islam 19, and Ganatantri Dal 13.

The major leaders of the United Front were Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhasani of Awami Muslim League and A. K. Fazlul Huq of Krishak-Sramik Party. Suhrawardy and Bhasani did not take part in the election and Fazlul Huq was invited to form the government. But a rift surfaced at the very outset on the question of formation of the cabinet. The unity and solidarity among the component parties of the United Front soon evaporated. Finally, on 15 May, Fazlul Huq arrived at an understanding with the Awami Muslim League and formed a 14-member cabinet with five members from that party.

But this cabinet lasted for only fourteen days. The Muslim League could not concede defeat in the elections in good grace. So, they resorted to conspiracies to dismiss the United Front government. In the third week of May, there were bloody riots between Bengali and non-Bengali workers in different mills and factories of East Bengal. The United Front government was blamed for failing to control the law and order situation in the province.

Fazlul Huq was then quoted in an interview taken by The New York Times correspondent John P Callaghan and published in a distorted form that he wanted the independence of East Bengal. Finally, on 29 May 1954, the United Front government was dismissed by the central government and Governor's rule was imposed in the province, which lasted till 2 June 1955.

Curiously enough within two months of his sacking, Fazlul Huq was appointed the central Home Minister. As Home Minister, Fazlul Huq utilised his influence to bring his party to power in East Bengal. Naturally, the United Front broke up. The Muslim members of the United Front split into two groups. In 1955 the Awami Muslim League adopted the path of secularism and non-communalism, erased the word 'Muslim' from its nomenclature and adopted the name "Awami League".[4]

Great differences began developing between the two wings of Pakistan. While the west had a minority share of Pakistan's total population, it had the largest share of revenue allocation, industrial development, agricultural reforms and civil development projects. Pakistan's military and civil services were dominated by the fair-skinned, Persian-cultured Punjabis and Afghans. Only one regiment in the Pakistani Army was Bengali. And many Bengali Pakistanis could not share the natural enthusiasm for the Kashmir issue, which they felt was leaving East Pakistan more vulnerable and threatened as a result.

Independence

Illustration showing military units and troop movements during the war.

After the Awami League won all the East Pakistan seats of the Pakistan's National Assembly in the 1970-71 elections, West Pakistan opened talks with the East on constitutional questions about the division of power between the central government and the provinces, as well as the formation of a national government headed by the Awami League.

The talks proved unsuccessful, however, and on March 1, 1971, Pakistani President Yahya Khan indefinitely postponed the pending National Assembly session, precipitating massive civil disobedience in East Pakistan.

On March 2, 1971, A group of students, led by A S M Abdur Rob,Student leader & VP of DUCSU (Dhaka University Central Students Union) raised the new (proposed) flag of Bangla under the direction of Swadhin Bangla NUCLEUS.

On March 3, 1971, Student leader Sahjahan Siraj read the Sadhinotar Ishtehar (Declaration of independence) at Paltan Maidan in front of Bangabandhu Shaikh Mujib along with student and public gathering.

On March 7, there was a historical public gathering in Paltan Maidan to hear the guideline for the revolution and independence from Shaikh Mujib, the frontier leader of movement that time. Although he avoided the direct speech of independence as the talks were still underway, he influenced the mob to prepare for the separation war. The speech is still considered a key moment in the war of liberation, and is remembered for the phrase, "Ebarer Shongram Muktir Shongram, Ebarer Shongram Shadhinotar Shongram...." ("This time, the revolution is for freedom; this time, the revolution is for liberation....")

Formal Declaration of Independence

After the military crackdown by the Pakistan army began on the night of March 25, 1971 Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested and the political leaders dispersed, mostly fleeing to neighbouring India where they organized a provisional government afterwards. Before being held up by the Pakistani Army Sheikh Mujibur Rahman gave a hand note of the declaration of the independence of Bangladesh and it was circulated amongst people and transmitted by the the then East Pakistan Rifles' wireless transmitter. In chittagong on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Awami League Leader M. A. Hannan first read the declaration of independence on the Radio. A few Bangalee Radio Professionals organized together to build up Shadhin Bangla Betar Kendro ( Radio Station of Independent Bengal) and asked the Bengali Army Major Zia-Ur-Rahman to read the declaration of independence of Bangladesh on the independent Radio. On 27th march Major Zia read the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, "I, Major Zia-ur-Rahman, who hereby declare the independence of Bangladesh, on behalf of our great national leader Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman".

The Bangladesh Government was formed in Meherpur, (later renamed as Mujibnagar a place adjacent to the Indian Border). Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was announced to be the head of the state. Tajuddin Ahmed became the prime minister of the government. There the war plan was sketched.

A war force was established named "Muktibahini". M. A. G. Osmani was assigned as the Chief of the force. The land sketched into 11 sectors under 11 sector commanders. Along with this sectors on the later part of the war Three special forces were formed namely Z Force, S Force and K Force. These three forces name were derived from the initial letter of the commandar's name.

The training and most of the arms-ammunitions were arranged by the Meherpur government which were supported by India.

As fighting grew between the Pakistan Army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini ("freedom fighters"), an estimated ten million Bengalis, mainly Hindus, sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam, Tripura and West Bengal.

The crisis in East Pakistan produced new strains in Pakistan's troubled relations with India. The two nations had fought a war in 1965, mainly in the west, but the refugee pressure in India in the fall of 1971 produced new tensions in the east. Indian sympathies lay with East Pakistan, and on December 3, 1971, India intervened on the side of the Bangladeshis. On December 16, 1971, Pakistani forces surrendered, and Bangla Desh ("Country of Bangla") was finally established the following day. The new country changed its name to Bangladesh on January 11, 1972 and became a parliamentary democracy under a constitution. Shortly thereafter on March 19 Bangladesh signed a friendship treaty with India.

Post-independence

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, 1972-75

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman came to office with immense personal popularity but had difficulty transforming this popular support into the political strength needed to function as head of government. The 1972 constitution adopted as state policy the Awami League (AL) four basic principles of nationalism, secularism, socialism, and democracy.[5]

The first parliamentary elections were held in March 1973, with the Awami League winning a massive majority. The new Bangladesh government focused on relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction of the economy and society. In December 1974, in the face of continuing economic deterioration and mounting civil disorder, Mujib proclaimed a state of emergency, limited the powers of the legislative and judicial branches, banned all the newspaper except four government supported papers, and introduced one-party system baning all the other parties.

Despite some improvement in the economic situation during the first half of 1975, criticism of Mujib grew. In August 1975, Mujib, and most of his family, were assassinated by mid-level army officers. A new government, headed by former Mujib associate Khandakar Moshtaque, was formed.[5]

Ziaur Rahman, 1975-81

Successive military coups resulted in the emergence of Army Chief of Staff Gen. Ziaur Rahman ("Zia") as strongman. In the historic 7th November 1975, "Jatiyo Biplob O Shanghoti Dibosh" the army captured the power freed Major Zia. He pledged the army's support to the civilian government headed by President Chief Justice Sayem. Acting at Zia's behest, Sayem dissolved Parliament, and instituted the Martial Law Administration (MLA).[5]

In November 1976, Zia became Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) and assumed the presidency upon Sayem's retirement five months later, promising national elections in 1978.[5]

As President, Zia announced a 19-point program of economic reform and began dismantling the MLA. Zia won a five-year term in June 1978 elections, with 76% of the vote. Democracy and constitutional order were fully restored when the ban on political parties was lifted, new parliamentary elections were held in February 1979. The AL and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), founded by Zia, emerged as the two major parties.[5]

In May 1981, Zia was assassinated in Chittagong by dissident elements of the military. The conspirators were either taken into custody or killed. Vice President Justice Abdus Sattar was sworn in as acting president, and elected president as the BNP's candidate six months later. Sattar followed the policies of his predecessor and retained essentially the same cabinet.[5]

Hussain Mohammed Ershad, 1982-90

In March 1982 Army Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad suspended the constitution and declared martial law citing pervasive corruption, ineffectual government, and economic mismanagement. The following year, Ershad assumed the presidency, and won overwhelming public support for his regime in a national referendum in March 1985, although turnout was small. Political life was liberalized through 1985 and 1986, and the Jatiya (National) Party was established as Ershad’s vehicle for the transition back to democracy.[5]

Parliamentary elections were held in May 1986, but were boycotted by the BNP, now led by President Zia's widow, Begum Khaleda Zia,. The Jatiya Party won a modest majority of the 300 elected seats in the National Assembly. The participation of the Awami League -- led by the late President Mujib's daughter, Sheikh Hasina Wajed -- lent the elections some credibility, despite widespread charges of voting irregularities.[5]

Ershad retired from military service in preparation for the presidential elections in October 1986, and won 84% of the vote. Protesting that martial law was still in effect, both the BNP and the AL refused to put up opposing candidates.[5] In November 1986, martial law was lifted, and the opposition parties took their elected seats in the National Assembly.[5]

In July 1987, after the government hastily pushed through a bill to include military representation on local administrative councils, the opposition walked out of Parliament. As the opposition organized protest marches and nationwide strikes, the government arrested scores of opposition activists. After declaring a state of emergency, Ershad dissolved Parliament and scheduled fresh elections for March 1988.[5]

The elections were held despite an opposition boycott, and the ruling Jatiya Party won 251 of the 300 seats. The Parliament passed a large number of bills, including in June 1988 a controversial constitutional amendment making Islam Bangladesh's state religion.[5]

On December 6, 1990, following general strikes, increased campus protests, public rallies, and a general disintegration of law and order,[5] Ershad resigned. On February 27, 1991, an interim government headed by Acting President Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed oversaw what most observers believed to be the nation's most free and fair elections to that date.and..[5]

Khaleda Zia, 1991-96

BNP won a plurality of seats and formed a government with Khaleda Zia, widow of Ziaur Rahman, becoming prime minister. The electorate approved changes to the constitution, formally re-creating a \In March 1994, controversy over a parliamentary by-election, which the opposition claimed the government had rigged, led to general strikes and an indefinite boycott of Parliament by the opposition. In late December 1994, the opposition resigned en masse from Parliament, and pledged to boycott national elections scheduled for February 15, 1996.[5]

In February, Khaleda Zia was re-elected by a landslide in voting boycotted by the three main opposition parties. In March 1996, following escalating political turmoil, the Parliament amended the constitution to allow a neutral caretaker government to assume power and conduct new parliamentary elections.

Sheikh Hasina, 1996-2001

Elections were held in June 1996 which were found by international and domestic election observers to be free and fair. The Awami League won a plurality of the seats, and formed the government with support from the Jatiya Party of deposed president Ershad. AL leader Sheikh Hasina became Prime Minister.[5]

In June 1999, the BNP and other opposition parties again began to boycott Parliament, and stage nationwide general strikes. A four-party opposition alliance formed at the beginning of 1999 announced that it would boycott parliamentary by-elections and local government elections.[5]

general election to be held on October 1, 2001.[5]

Four Party Aliiance led by BNP, 2001-2006

The four-party alliance led by the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) won over a two-thirds majority in Parliament. Begum Khaleda Zia was sworn in on October 10, 2001, as Prime Minister for the third time.[5]

An grenade attack on a rally of Sheikh Hasina killed 23 people on August 21, 2004. On August 17, 2005, near-synchronized blasts of improvised explosive devices in 63 out of 64 administrative districts targeted mainly government buildings and killed two persons. An extremist Islamist group named Jama'atul Mujahideen, Bangladesh (JMB) claimed responsibility for the blasts, which aimed to press home JMB's demand for a replacement of the secular legal system with Islamic sharia courts. Hundreds of senior and mid-level JMB leaders were arrested.[5]

In February 2006, after sporadic boycotts, the AL returned to Parliament, demanded early elections and requested significant changes in the electoral and caretaker government systems to stop alleged moves by the ruling coalition to rig the next election. Dialogue between the Secretaries General of the main ruling and opposition parties failed to sort out the electoral reform issues.[5]

In July 2001, the Awami League government stepped down to allow a caretaker government to preside over parliamentary elections. In August, Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina agreed to respect the results of the election, join Parliament win or lose, foreswear the use of hartals (violently enforced strikes) as political tools, and if successful in forming a government allow for a more meaningful role for the opposition in Parliament. The caretaker government was successful in containing the violence, which allowed a parliamentary

Caretaker Government, Oct 2006-Jan 2009

On January 3, 2007, the Awami League announced it would boycott the January 22 parliamentary elections. The AL planned a series of country-wide general strikes and transportation blockades.[5]

On January 11, 2007, President Iajuddin Ahmed declared a state of emergency, resigned as Chief Adviser, and indefinitely postponed parliamentary elections. On January 12, 2007, former Bangladesh Bank governor Fakhruddin Ahmed was sworn in as the new Chief Adviser, and ten new advisers (ministers) were appointed. Under emergency provisions, the government suspended certain fundamental rights guaranteed by the constitution and detained a large number of politicians and others on suspicion of involvement in corruption and other crimes. The government announced elections would occur in late 2008.[5] As of November 19, 2008, elections were scheduled for December 8, 2008.[6]

In the summer of 2007 the government arrested Sheikh Hasina and Khaleda Zia, Bangladesh's two most influential political leaders, on charges of corruption. Hasina and Zia have challenged the cases filed against them under the Emergency Power Rules, which deny the accused the right to bail. While the cases are under judicial review, the two leaders continue to be imprisoned as of March 2008.[5]

Grand Alliance January 2009-present

On 19 November 2008 Awami League & Jatiya Party agreed to contest the elections jointly under the Caretaker Government to be held on 29 December 2008. Out of the 300 Constituencies in the Parliament, Ershad's Jatiya Party will contest from 49 seats and Awami League and members of a leftist wing Fourteen Party Coalition from the rest 250 seats.[7] Thus the Grand Alliance emerged in Bangladesh; known as Mohajote in Bangla

On December 29, 2008 Bangladesh went to the polls and the nation elected the Grand Alliance which was led by Sheikh Hasina's Awami League and backed by Hussain Mohammed Ershad's Jatiya Party. On the other hand Khaleda Zia's BNP-led Four Party Alliance plagued by allegations of Khaleda Zia's [8][9] and her infamous son Tareq Rahman's corruption allegations [10] [11][12], suffered the most embarassing defeat ever in Bangladesh's history.

Sheikh Hasina became Prime Minister and formed the government and a cabinet which included ministers from Jatiya Party although any post for Hussain Mohammed Ershad, is yet to be decided as the earlier agreed Presidency seems elusive.

The mutiny of borderguards (BDR) took place from 25 to 27 February 2009. More than a thousand BDR soldiers took over the BDR headquarters, and held many of their officers hostage. By the second day fighting spread to 12 other towns and cities.[13][14] The mutiny ended as the mutineers surrendered their arms and released the hostages[15] after a series of discussions and negotiations with the government.[16] Out of 181 army officers that were at the BDR headquarters when the revolt started only 33 survived.

References

  1. James Heitzman and Robert L. Worden, ed (1989). "Early History, 1000 B. C.-A. D. 1202". Bangladesh: A country study. Library of Congress. http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/bdtoc.html.
  2. History, Banglapedia
  3. RIYAZU-S-SALĀTĪN: A History of Bengal, Ghulam Husain Salim, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1902.
  4. Banglapedia
  5. a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x "Background Note: Bangladesh". Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs (March 2008). Accessed June 11, 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  6. http://www.thedailystar.net/story.php?nid=64131
  7. http://www.bangladeshnews.com.bd/2008/11/19/jp-aboard-al-polls-boat
  8. The Associated Press Published: September 2, 2007 (2007-09-02). "Ex-PM sued on corruption charges in Bangladesh". International Herald Tribune. http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/09/02/asia/AS-GEN-Bangladesh-Ex-Prime-Minister.php. Retrieved on 2009-01-15.
  9. "Bangladesh former PM is arrested". BBC News. 2007-09-03. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6975340.stm. Retrieved on 2009-01-15.
  10. "South Asia | Khaleda Zia's son is refused bail". BBC News. 2007-03-13. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6446065.stm. Retrieved on 2009-01-15.
  11. "Those shameless corrupts in Bangladesh". Asian Tribune. http://www.asiantribune.com/index.php?q=node/427. Retrieved on 2009-01-15.
  12. "The Daily Star Web Edition Vol. 5 Num 1066". Thedailystar.net. 2007-06-01. http://www.thedailystar.net/2007/06/01/d7060101011.htm. Retrieved on 2009-01-15.
  13. (Bengali)"বিডিআর জওয়ানদের বিদ্রোহ নিহতের সংখ্যা ১৫ বলে দাবি * মহাপরিচালক শাকিল বেঁচে নেই * জিম্মি কর্মকর্তাদের পরিণতি অজানা", Prothom Alo: 1, 26 February, http://www.prothom-alo.com/index.news.details.php?nid=MjIxOTM=
  14. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7911524.stm
  15. "Bangladesh guard mutiny 'is over'", BBC World: 1, 26 February, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7912392.stm
  16. "অবশেষে আত্মসমর্পণ". Prothom Alo. 27 February 2009