Bangladesh

Explore the enchanting town of Rangpur,Bangladesh

2009-08-31T00:08:00.000-07:00

Rangpur is both a city and a district in the Rajshahi division. The district is quite large and has three municipalities, eight upazilias, 33 wards and 84 union parishads. There are approximately 1519 villages in the district.

The town of Rangpur is situated on the banks of the river Ghagat and is home to one of the three district municipalities. Rangpur city is perhaps best known for its role in the tobacco industry as it serves as the administrative center for all the tobacco-growing in the district and is responsible for the manufacture of cigarettes and cigars. Rangpur city is also renowned for its cotton carpets, which are of an outstanding quality. The city has eight colleges that are affiliated with Rajshahi University, but only just more than half the population is literate.

There are quite a lot of historical attractions to see in the Rangpur district that make it well worth visiting. The Keramatia Mosque is a good place to start. However the three domed Jami Mosque from the Mughal period, the four domed Taraganj Mosque and the spectacular nine domed Radhanagar Mosque, which is also from the Mughal period, are much more impressive. On a more morbid note, there are a number of tombs that are popular with visitors; these include the tombs of Islamic thinker Maulana Keramat Ali Jainpuri, Shah Jalal Bokheri, Ismail Ghazi and Kutub Shah. If you visit these places with a knowledgeable guide you will have the opportunity to find out how these various individuals made an impact on the lives of those around them. For more conventional attractions you can visit the Rangpur Museum, the Rangpur Town Hall and the Rangpur Public Library. The palace remnants of Raja Nilambar, Hari Mandir and Mitha Pukur are also quite amazing to see.

There are many other historical and archaeological treasures to be found in here as well as a lot more to learn about Rangpur. Merely listing all the attractions here will not do any of them any justice as you simply have to see them for yourself. Book your ticket for Rangpur today to enjoy the historical mysteries of this stunning region and its friendly people.

Scuba diving in Bangladesh

2009-08-27T06:59:00.000-07:00

Not many people view Bangladesh as being a great location to go scuba diving. However more and more people are discovering the natural wonders that St Martin's Island has to offer. This small island is located just off the coast of Bangladesh and it is already quite a national treasure.

Scuba diving in Bangladesh is still relatively under-developed. As a mostly Muslim country many tourist-related developments found in other Asian countries have yet to be found in Bangladesh. There are no discotheques, night clubs or places you can go for a drink. But true nature lovers don’t mind one bit, because when you step on to St. Martin's Island, all that is quickly forgotten

Known locally as Narikel Jinjira (Coconut Island), the island is located just 14 km away from the country’s southernmost town of Teknaf. Its beaches are fringed with coconut palms and visitors can walk the entire island in just one day. Bright, blue waters sparkle with untainted purity. This truly is paradise – and not just to the locals who frequent it. Foreigners who have chanced upon this natural treasure quickly return to share with friends. Filip Engsig-Karup, a Danish tour operator, said: "I enjoy bringing people here and they are pleasantly surprised when they see all the beauty. It's a shame this is not more known to the world yet. When I take people from Denmark to Bangladesh, everybody is amazed because the impression they have got about this country is quite different from the reality."

Government officials have already recognized the immense potential that St Martin's Island has with regards to tourism and increasing local revenue. With this in mind, they recently introduced scuba diving and speedboat sailing as part of efforts to attract more tourists. Before long, visitors should also be able to enjoy water skiing and other sporting facilities when visiting this little piece of paradise. However these changes are also made with a sense of caution; officials know that they will also need to put strict conservation measures in place to prevent people from harming the island’s nesting turtle populations – either from disturbing the nesting process or by accidentally or purposefully destroying nests. They also need to prevent divers from breaking off pieces of the dazzling coral found beneath the surface of the water. However the island is simply too beautiful to be kept a secret and so in the meantime it seems that efforts to build tourism will continue at a spanking pace.

Play a round at a Golf Course in Bangladesh

2009-08-27T06:47:00.000-07:00

Golf is a popular sport throughout the world. It is often on golf courses that business deals are struck. Men and women worldwide enjoy a round of golf with friends and associates and Bangladesh is certainly no exception. There are a few golf courses in Bangladesh that will keep golfers occupied and ensure that they have a great time. Picture yourself playing a round of golf in Bangladesh, with beautiful trees surrounding you and birds calling across the green grass.

Kurmitola Golf Club in Dhaka is quite a challenging course. With tree lined fairways, the scenic beauty of this course is amazing. Various well-known golf competitions have been and continue to be held here, including the American Cup Trophy of 2005. Members of the Dhaka Oddball Golf Society are a common sight on this Bangladeshi golf course. They can be seen each week competing for what they refer to as the 'Chief of the Pack'. About an hour drive away from Dhaka is the Savar Golf Club. The golf course in Chittagong is also scenically situated in the hills.

Monu Valley Golf Club often adds a bit of 'excitement' to your round of golf. Situatated amidst rubber groves, banyan trees and quiet paddies, you may be fortunate enough to have a Bengal tiger cross the fairways whilst you look on. Soi Dao Highlands golf course is another unique course. Elephants, deer and wild boar are protected in the area whilst villagers can be seen fishing in bodies of water or searching for food around the course.

When traveling through this fascinating country, be sure to include a round of golf at one of Bangladesh's golf courses on your itinerary.

Kurmitola Golf Club
Dhaka Cantonment
Dhaka
Email: kgcdhaka@hotmail.com, kgcdhaka@yahoo.com
Phone: +88-02-8752520,+88-02-8752526,+88-02-8752523
Fax: +88-02-8752521
Tee off time: 6:00am to 6:00pm (Summer); 6:00am to 5:00pm (Winter)

Bangladesh Travel Attractions

2009-08-27T06:31:00.001-07:00

Tourist attractions in Bangladesh abound. Throughout the country there are many fascinating things to see and exciting things to do. Arriving in Dhaka, your adventure can begin straight away. Pay a visit to the Old City where you will also be astounded by the bustling river life of Buriganga and the bright pink palace of Ahsan Manzil.The top attraction in Bangladesh's Dhaka is Lalbagh Fort.

Whilst traveling through the city of Chittagong, visitors will come across the lovely structures of Qadam Mubarak Mosque and Shahi Jama-e-Masjid as well as the intriguing Ethnological Museum.

Bangladesh's Mainimati Ruins, a renowned seat of Buddhist culture between the 7th and 12th centuries, should not be missed. Visitors should also include the Sompuri Vihara, dating back to the 8th century, on their itinerary. Nature lovers will definitely want to stop at Bangladesh's natural attraction: Sundarbans National Park. This park boasts the world's largest mangrove belt. There are just a few of the wonderful attractions in Bangladesh. You will discover many more when visiting this marvelous country.

Discover the wonderful culture of Bangladesh and it's people

2009-08-27T06:25:00.000-07:00

Bangladesh has a rich, diverse culture. Its deeply rooted heritage is thoroughly reflected in its architecture, dance, literature, music, painting and clothing. The three primary religions of Bangladesh (Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam) have had a great influence on its culture and history.

Bangalees have a rich fictional legacy, with the first available form of literature being over a thousand years old. Bengali literature developed considerably during the medieval period with the rise of popular poets such as Chandi Das, Daulat Kazi an Alaol.

The traditional music of Bangladesh is very much the same as that of the Indian sub-continent. The music in Bangladesh can be divided into three main categories: classical, modern and folk. Both vocal and instrumental classical music is enjoyed in Bangladesh. Ustad Ayet Ali Khan and Ustad Alauddin are two famous classical instrumental players that are internationally known. Modern music is becoming more popular and is practiced widely. Contemporary, pop songs and bands are also enjoying more widespread fame, but are mainly popular in the regions of Dhaka City.

Tribal dances are very popular among the Bangalees. The countryside girls are in the habit of dancing to popular folk music. Their dances require no regulations as such, just a small amount of courage and a big amount of rhythm. Popular songs like Shari and Jari are presented with the accompanying dance of both male and female performers.

Drama and theatre is an old tradition that is very popular in Bangladesh. More than a dozen theater groups in Dhaka City have been regularly staging locally written plays for hundreds of years. Many have also started adopted some plays from European writers. Baily Road in Dhaka is known as “Natak Para” and this is one location where drama shows are regularly held. Many shows are also held at the Dhaka University.

Another important aspect of the culture of Bangladesh is clothing. Bangladeshi woman usually wear Saris, made of the world famous and expensive, finely embroidered quilted patchwork cloth produced by the village woman. Woman will traditionally wear their hair in a twisted bun, which is called the “Beni style”. Hindus will traditionally wear Dhuty for religious purposes. These days most men of Bangladesh wear shirts and pants.

Tourism in Bangladesh(Historical Places)

2009-05-19T08:05:00.000-07:00

National Memorial

Located at Savar, about 35 km from Dhaka, the national memorial was designed by architect Moinul Hossain. It is dedicated to the sacred memory of the millions of unknown martyrs' of the war of liberation in 1971.

Central Shahid Minar

Symbol of Bengali nationalism, this monument was built to commemorate the martyrs' of the historic language movement on 21st February, 1952. The day is also now observed as International Mother Language Day across the world. Hundreds and thousands of barefooted people with floral wreaths and bouquets gather at this monument from the first hour of 21st February every year to pay homage to the martyrs.

Lalbagh Fort

The fort was built in 1678 by Prince Mohammad Azam, son of Mughal emperor Aurangozeb. The fort was the scene of a bloody battle during the first war of independence (1857) when 250 soldiers stationed here backed by people revolted against british forces. Besides the main structure, Lalbagh Fort also has a number of other buildings and monuments such as the tomb of Pari Bibi, Lalbagh mosque, audience hall and hammam khana (bathing place) of Nawab Shaista Khan now housing a museum.

Martyred Intellectual Memorial

Located at Mirpur, the memorial was built to commemorate the intellectuals who were killed in 1971 by the Pakistan's occupation forces just two days ahead of the Victory Day.

National Poet's Grave

Revolutionary poet Kazi Nazrul Islam died on 29th August 1976 and was buried here. The graveyard is adjacent to the Dhaka University Central Mosque.

Old High Court Building

Originally built as the residence of the British Governor, the High Court Building illustrates a fine blend of European and mughal architecture. The building is situated North of the Curzon Hall of Dhaka Universiry.

Sonargaon

About 29 km. from Dhaka, Sonargaon dating back to 13th century is one of the oldest capitals of Bengal. A folk-art and craft museum has been established here. Among the ancient monuments still intact are the tomb of Sultan Abdul Alla and a beautiful mosque in Goaldi village.

Natore - Dighapatiya Rajbari (Palace)

Natore lies about 40 km. from Rajshahi and is an old seat of the Maharajah of Dighapatiya, now serving as the Uttara Ganabhaban (The Official northern region residance of the President of the Republic). The palace has large, spacious grounds and is surrounded by a fine moat. The palace has well-equipped guest-house, an imposing gateway and a fine garden decorated with statues of white marble.

World War II Cemetery
In this well-preserved cemetery,in Chittagong lie burried over 700 soldiers from Commonwealth countries and Japan, who died during the Second World War.

Shilaidaha Kuthibari, Kushtia
The beautiful mansion carries memory of nobel laureate poet Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941) who made frequent visit to this place and used to stay here, in connection with administration of his Zamindari and enriched Bengali literature through his writtings during that time. It is located at a distance of about 20 km. from Kushtia town.

Sagordari, Jessore
The birth place of the celebrated poet Micheal Modhusudan Dutta. by most accounts the first modern poet of Bangla Literature. Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation has built a rest-house and other tourist facilities in the place.

Mujibnagar Memorial

Located at a distance of about 7 km. from the town of Meherpur. The beautiful memorial dedicated to the first provisional revolutionary government of Bangladesh that was declared here on 14 April 1971 during the liberation war.

Trishal
It is the place where innumerable boyhood memories of our national poet Kazi Nazrul Islam are found around. It is situated 20 km. away from Mymensingh town. Nazrul was a student of Darrirumpur High School under Trisal police station. Here a cultural organization styled as Nazrul
Academy has been established in memory of the great poet. Rebel poet Kazi Nazrul, the shelley of Bangladesh is in eternal sleep besides Dhaka University Central Mosque.

Gandhi Asram

Situated about 23 km. north-west of Choumuhani town and 2 km. east of Chatkhil at Jayag in Noakhali district. This asram was established in the memory of historic visit of the Mahatma Gandhi to Noakhali and devoted to his ideology. In 1946-47 Mahatma the protagonist of Ahimsa ideology visited this region with a view to preach peace. Historical Charka and other valuables used by Mahatma are preserved in this asram and those evoke deep respect to the unique memories of the great soul.

Ahsan Manzil Museum, Dhaka

On the bank of river Buriganga in Dhaka the Pink majestic Ahsan Manzil has been renovated and turned into a museum recently. It is an epitome of the nation's rich cultural heritage. It is the home of Nawab of Dhaka and a silent spectator to many events.
Today's renovated Ahsan Manzil a monument of immense historical beauty. It has 31 rooms with a huge dome atop which can be seen from miles

around. It now has 23 galleries in 31 rooms displaying of traits, furniture and household articles and utensils used by the Nawab.

Shahjadpur Kuthibari

About 75 km. from Pabna town. It is also a historical place connected with the frequent visits of poet Rabindranath Tagore.

Tourism in Bangladesh(Archaeological Sites)

2009-05-19T07:57:00.000-07:00

Mainamati The seat of lost dynasties
About eight km to the west of Comilla town and 114 km South-east of Dhaka lies the low hills known as Mainamati-Lalmai ridge an extensive centre of Buddhist culture. On the slopes of these hills lie scattered a treasure of information about the early Buddhist civilization (8th to 12th century). At Salban in the middle of the ridge, excavations laid bare a large Buddhist Vihara (monastery) and imposing central shrine.
It has revealed valuable information of the rule of the Chandra and Deva dynasties which flourished here from the 8th to 12th century A. D. The whole range of hillocks run for about 18th km. and is studded with more than 50 sites. A site museum housed the archaeological finds which include terracotta plaques, bronze statues and casket, coins, jewellery, utensils, pottery and votive stupas embossed with Buddhist inscription. Museum is open Sunday-Friday and closed on Saturday.

Mahasthangarh
The oldest archaeological site

Located at a distance of 18 km north of Bogra town, Mahasthanragh is the oldest archaeological site of Bangladesh on the western bank of river Karatoa. The spectacular site is an imposing landmark in the area having a fortified long enclosure. Beyond the fortified area, other ancient ruins fan out within a semi circle of about 8 km. radius. Several isolated mounds, the local names of which are Govinda Bhita Temple, Khodai Pathar Mound, Mankalir Kunda, Parsuramer Bedi, Jiyat Kunda etc. surround the fortified city. This 3rd century B. C. archaeological site is still held to be of great sanctity by the Hindus. Every year (mid-April) and once in every 12 years (December) thousands of Hindu devotees join the bathing ceremony on the bank of river Karatoa. A visit to the Mahasthangarh site museum will open up for one a wide variety of antiquities, ranging from terracotta objects to gold ornaments and coins recovered from the site. Also noteworthy are the shrine of Shah Sultan Bulkhi Mahisawary and Gokul Medh in the neighbourhood of Mahasthangarh.

Paharpur
The largest Buddhist seat of learning

Paharpur is a small village 5 km west of Jamalganj railway station in the greater Rajshahi district where the remains of the most important and the largest known monastery, south of the Himalayas has been excavated. This 8th century A.D. archaeological find covers approximately an area of 27 acres of land. The entire establishment, occupying a quadrangular court, measuring more than 900 ft. and from 12 ft to 15 ft in height with elaborate gateway complex on the north, there are 45 cells on the north and 44 in each of other three sides with a total number of 177 rooms. The architecture of the pyramidal cruciform temple is profoundly influenced by those of south-east Asia, especially Myanmar and Java. It had taken its name from a high mound, which like Pahar or hillock. A site museum houses the representative collection of objects recovered from the area. The excavated findings have also been preserved at the Varendra Research Museum at Rajshahi. The antiquities of the museum include terracotta plaque, images of different gods and goddesses, potteries, coins, inscriptions, ornamental bricks and other minor clay objects. It has been declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Interested tourists may avail package tours offered by Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation to visit Bangladesh.

For details please contact Manager (tours) for prices and booking.
Phone:(880 - 2) 9899288-91, 8811109, 8821548
Fax: (880 - 2) 8811150
e-mail : info@bangladeshtourism.gov.bd
or any Tourist information Center.

Sitakunda
Chandranath Hindu Temple

It is approximately 37 km far from Chittagong city. This is famous for Chandranath Hindu Temple - one of the oldest temples in the subcontinent. There is also Buddhist Temple having a footprint of Lord Buddha. These places particularly the hilltops are regarded as very sacred by the hindus and buddhist. Shiva Chaturdashi (14th) festivals is held every year in February when thousands of pilgrims assemble which lasts for ten days. There is also a hot-water spring 5 km to the north of Sitakunda.

Sri Chaitanya Temple
Hindu Temple

About 500 years old famous temple of Sri Chaitanya Dev is located at Dhaka Dakhin nearly 45 km south-east from Sylhet town. The place is revered for being the ancestral home of the famous Vaishnava saint. Yearly fair is organized on the fullmoon day of the bangla month Falgun. Hundreds and thousand of devotees from home and abroad attend this colorful fair.

Tourism in Bangladesh

2009-05-19T07:55:00.000-07:00

Kuakata
	A rare scenic spot on the southernmost tip of Bangladesh in Patuakhali district Kuakata has a wide sandy beach from where one can see both the sunrise and sunset. Kuakata is located at a distance of 70 km. from the district headquarters of Patuakhali.
Parjatan Holiday Homes at Kuakata offers a number of facilities for the tourists. This sandy beach slopes gently to the Bay of Bengal and bathing here is as pleasant as is diving or simply lazing on the beach. The virgin beaches of Kuakata, lined by coconut trees, are a sanctuary for migratory winter birds. Kuakata has a picture perfect setting where life is laid back and time seems unhurried. The Bay is alive with colorful sail boats, surfing, fishing or walking on the beach - Kuakata offers something for everyone. Kuakata is a place of pilgrimage for the Hindu and Buddhist communities. Devotees arrive here during the festival of ' Raash Purnima' and 'Maghi Purnima'-- two sacred full moon festivals. A bath in the Bay is a part of the ritual. Fairs are also held where one can buy handloom and other handicraft items. A visit to a Rakhyne family and the hundred year old Buddist temple should be on each visitor's itinerary. Kuakata has road communication with Dhaka, but the journey may be long and a bit stressful. A much easier way is to go to Barisal by air and from there travel by road or water to Patuakhali or Kuakata. BRTC runs a direct bus service from Dhaka to Kuakata via Barisal. Besides, Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation may organize guided package tours from Dhaka to Kuakata on demand.

Tourism in Bangladesh

2009-05-19T07:32:00.000-07:00

Cox's Bazar

Miles of golden sands, towering cliffs, surfing waves, rare conch shells, colorful Pagodas, Buddhist Temples and delightful sea-food - all this makes what Cox's Bazar is today , the tourist capital of Bangladesh. The World's longest uninterrupted (120 km.) beach slopes here down to the blue waters of the Bay of Bengal against the picturesque background of a chain of hills covered with deep green forests.

Cox's Bazar is one of the most attractive tourist spots in the world. The warm, shark free, waters are good for bathing and swimming & while the sandy beaches offer opportunities for sun-bathing.

The beauty of the setting-sun behind the waves of the sea is simply captivating. Locally made cigars and handloom products of the tribal Rakhyne families are good buys.

Located at a distance of 152 km. south of Chittagong, Cox's Bazar is connected both by air and road from Dhaka and Chittagong.

Visit to the fascinating picnic spots at Himchari and Teknaf, the Buddhist Temple at Ramu and nearby islands of Sonadia and St. Martin's, Inani Beach and Moheshkhali are certain to become unforgettable experiences for every visitor.

Inani Beach

Inani is within Ukhia Thana, 35 km. to the south of Cox's Bazar. With green hills to the east, the golden beach of Inani casts a music spell on anyone stepping on to its fine golden sands. The clean blue waters of the Bay are ideal for swimming.

St. Martin Island

Forty-eight kilometers from Teknaf, St. Martin's is the country's only coral island and an unspoilt paradise. Named Narikel Jinjira (Coconut Island) by the locals, the dumbbell shaped St.Martin's has an area of only 8 sq. km. which reduces to about 5 sq. km. and in places from 1-4 meters during high tide.

The Cox's Bazar Holiday Complex of Bangladesh Parjatan Corporation on the island is an shore tourist resort having comfortable accommodation, catering, sightseeing and other facilities.

History of Bangladesh

2009-05-18T05:54:00.001-07:00

Ancient period

See also: Anga, Gangaridai, Magadha, Pundra Kingdom, Suhma Kingdom, and Vanga Kingdom

Pre-historic Bengal

Stone tools provide the earliest evidence of human settlements. Prehistoric stone implements have been discovered in various parts of West Bengal in the districts of Midnapur, Bankura and Burdwan. But it is difficult to determine, even approximately, the time when people using them first settled in Bengal. It might have taken place ten thousand years (or even more) ago. The original settlers spoke non-Aryan languages— they may have spoken Austric or Austro-Asiatic languages like the languages of the present-day Kola, Bhil, Santal, Shabara, and Pulinda peoples. At a subsequent age, peoples speaking languages from two other language families— Dravidian and Tibeto-Burman—seem to have settled in Bengal. Archaeological discoveries during the 1960s furnished evidence of a degree of civilisation in certain parts of Bengal as far back as the beginning of the first millennium BC, perhaps even earlier. The discoveries at Pandu Rajar Dhibi in the valley of the Ajay river (near Bolpur) in Burdwan district and in several other sites on the Ajay, Kunar and Kopai rivers have thrown fresh light on Bengal's prehistory. Pandu Rajar Dhibi represents the ruins of a trading township, which carried on trade not only with the interior regions of India, but also—possibly indirectly—with the countries of the Mediterranean.

Proto-History

Mahasthangarh is the oldest archaeological site in Bangladesh. It dates back to 700 BCE and was the ancient capital of the Pundra Kingdom.

Hindu scriptures such as the Mahabharata suggest that Bengal was divided among various tribes or kingdoms, including the Nishadas and the tribes known as the Janapadas: Vanga (south Bengal), Pundra (north Bengal), and Rarh/Suhma (West Bengal) according to their respective totems. These Hindu sources, written by Indo-Aryans in what are now Punjab and Uttar Pradesh, suggest that the peoples of Bengal were not Indo-Aryans. However, Jain scriptures identify Vanga and Anga in Bengal as Indo-Aryan. While western Bengal, as part of Magadha, formed part of Indo-Aryan civilization by the 7th century BCE, the Nanda Dynasty was the first historical state to unify all of Bengal under Indo-Aryan rule.

Bengal in mythology

Not much is known about this civilization. Some deprecatory references indicate that the early people in Bengal were different in ethnicity and culture from the Vedic beyond the boundary of Aryandom and who were classed as 'Dasyus'. The Bhagavata Purana classes them as sinful people while Dharmasutra of Bodhayana prescribes expiatory rites after a journey among the Pundras and Vangas.Mahabharata speaks of Paundraka Vasudeva who was lord of the Pundrasand who allied himself with Jarasandha against Krishna.Mahabharata also speaks of Bengali kings caled Chitrasena and Sanudrasena who were defeated by Bhima, Kalidas mentions Raghu defeated a coalition of Vanga kings who were defeated by Raghu and Raghu established a victory column in the Gangetic delta.

Overseas colonization

Bengal had overseas trade relations with Java, Sumatra and Suvarnabhumi (in modern Thailand). According to Mahavamsa, Vijaya Singha, a Vanga prince, conquered Lanka (modern day Sri Lanka) in 544 BC and gave the name "Sinhala" to the country. Bengali people migrated to the Malay Archipelago and Suvarnabhumi (in modern Thailand) establishing their own colonies over there.

Gangaridai Empire

Main article: Gangaridai

Asia in 323BC, the Nanda Empire and Gangaridai Empire in relation to Alexander's Empire and neighbors.

Though north and west Bengal were part of the Magadhan empire southern Bengal thrived and became powerful with her overseas trades. In 326 BCE, with the invasion of Alexander the Great the region again came to prominence. The Greek and Latin historians suggested that Alexander the Great withdrew from India anticipating the valiant counter attack of the mighty Gangaridai empire that were located in the Bengal region. Alexander, after the meeting with his officer, Coenus, was convinced that it was better to return. Diodorus Siculus mentions Gangaridai to be the largest and the most powerful empire in India whose king possessed an army of 20,000 horses, 200,000 infantry, 2,000 chariots and 4,000 elephants trained and equipped for war. The allied forces of Gangaridai and Prasii (Nanda Empire) were preparing a massive counter attack against the forces of Alexander on the banks of Ganges. Gangaridai according to the Greek accounts kept on flourishing at least up to the 1st century AD.

Early Middle Ages

The pre-Gupta period of Bengal is shrouded with obscurity. Before the conquest of Samudragupta Bengal was divided into two kingdoms: Pushkarana and Samatata. Chandragupta II had to defeat a confederacy of Vanga kings. Bengal became a part of the Gupta Empire.

Gauda Kingdom

By the sixth century, the Gupta Empire ruling over the northern Indian subcontinent was largely broken up. Eastern Bengal became the Vanga Kingdom while the Gauda kings rose in the west with their capital at Karnasuvarna (Murshidabad). Shashanka, a vassal of the last Gupta Empire became independent and unified the smaller principalities of Bengal (Gaur, Vanga, Samatata) and vied for regional power with Harshavardhana in northern India. But this burst of Bengali power did not last beyond his death, as Bengal descended afterwards into a period marked by disunity and foreign invasion.

The Pala Empire

Main article: Pala Empire


Pala Empire under Dharmapala		Pala Empire under Devapala

The first independent Buddhist king of Bengal, Gopala, came to power in 750 in Gaur by election. This event is recognized as one of the first democratic elections in South Asia since the time of the Mahā Janapadas. Gopala founded the Buddhist Pala dynasty which lasted for four centuries (750-1120 AD), ushering in a period of relative stability and prosperity.

Somapura Mahavihara in Paharpur, Bangladesh is the greatest Buddhist Vihara in the Indian Subcontinent built by Dharmapala.

At its peak, under Dharmapala, the empire extended into much of Bihar and once more wrestled for control of the subcontinent. He conquered Bhoja (Berar), Matsya (Jaipur), Madra (Central Punjab), Kuru (Thaneswar), Yadu (Mathura and Dwaraka), Avanti (Malwa), Yavana (Muslims of Sindh/Multan), Gandhara (Kabol valley), Kambojja and Kira (Kangra).

Devapala, successor of Dharmapala, expanded his empire farther up to Assam and Utkala in the east, Kamboja (modern day Afghanistan) in the north-west and Deccan in the south. According to Pala copperplate inscription He exterminated the Utkalas, conquered the Pragjyotisha (Assam), shattered the pride of the Huna, and humbled the lords of Gurjara, Pratiharas and the Dravidas.

Buddha and Bodhisattvas, 11th century, Pala Empire.

The Pala Empire can be considered as the golden era of Bengal. Never had the Bengali people reached such height of power and glory and never had they influenced the outside world to that extent. Palas were responsible for the introduction of Mahayana Buddhism in Tibet, Bhutan and Myanmar. The pre-dominant Pala sculptures and the proto-Bangla scripts of the Sailendra Empire (Malaya, Java, Sumatra) of the late 8th century attest that the Sailendra dynasty was connected to Bengal.

The death of Devapala ended the period of ascendancy of the Pala Empire and several independent dynasties and kingdoms emerged during this time, including the Khadgas, Devas, the Chandras, and Varmanas.

Mahipala I rejuvenated the reign of the Palas. He recovered north Bengal from the Kambojas and survived the invasions of Rajendra Chola and the Chalukyas. Mahipala I did not join the Hindu confederacy against Mahmud of Ghazni.

After Mahipala I the Pala dynasty again saw its decline until Ramapala, the last great ruler of the dynasty, managed to retrieve the position of the dynasty to some extent. He crushed the endra rebellion and extended his empire farther to Kamarupa, Orissa and Northern India.

Sena dynasty

Main article: Sena dynasty

The Palas were followed by the Sena dynasty who brought the East and West Bengal under one ruler only during the twelfth century.Vijaya sena the founder of this dynasty defeated the last pala emperor Madanpala and established his reign.Vallal sena introduced caste system in Bengal.the last king of this dynasty Lakshman sena was defeated by the Turks and fled to eastern Bengal were he ruled few more years. The Sena dynasty brought a revival of Hinduism and cultivated Sanskrit literature.

Late Middle Ages - arrival of Islam

Islam made its first appearance in Bengal during the twelfth century AD when Sufi missionaries arrived. Later occasional Muslim invaders reinforced the process of conversion by building mosques, madrassas and Sufi Khanqahs. Beginning in 1202 a military commander from the Delhi Sultanate, Ikhtiar Uddin Muhammad bin Bakhtiar Khilji, overran Bihar and Bengal as far east as Rangpur, Bogra and the Brahmaputra River. The defeated Laksman Sen and his two sons moved to a place then called Vikramapur (Present Munsiganj district), where their diminished dominion lasted until the late thirteenth century.

Khilji maliks

The period after Bakhtiar Khilji's death in 1206 devolved into infighting among the Khiljis - representative of a pattern of succession struggles and intra-empire intrigues during later Turkish regimes. Ghiyasuddin Iwaz Khalji prevailed and extended the Sultan's domain south to Jessore and made the eastern Bang province a tributary. The capital was made at Lakhnauti on the Ganges near the older Bengal capital of Gaur (Malda district of West Bengal, India). He managed to make Kamarupa, Orissa and Trihut pay tribute to him. But he was later defeated by Shams-ud-Din Iltutmish.

Mameluk rule

The weak successors of Iltutmish encouraged the local governors to declare independence. Bengal was sufficiently remote from Delhi that its governors would declare independence on occasion, styling themselves as Sultans of Bengal. It was during this time that Bengal earned the name "Bulgakpur" (land of the rebels). Tughral Togun Khan added Oudh and Bihar to Bengal. Mughisuddin Yuzbak also conquered Bihar and Oudh from Delhi but was killed during an unsuccessful expedition in Assam.Two Turkish attempts to push east of the broad Jamuna and Brahmaputra rivers were repulsed, but a third led by Mughisuddin Tughral conquered the Sonargaon area south of Dhaka to Faridpur, bringing the Sen Kingdom officially to an end by 1277. Mughisuddin Tughral repulsed two massive attacks of the sultanate of Delhi before finally being defeated and killed by Ghiyas ud din Balban.

Mahmud Shahi dynasty

But Balban's own Nasiruddin Bughra khan declared independence in Bengal. Thus Bengal regained her independence back. Nasiruddin Bughra Khan and his successors ruled Bengal for 23 years finally being incorporated into Delhi Sultanate by Ghyiasuddin Tughlaq.

Ilyas Shahi dynasty

Sixty Dome Mosque in Mosque city of Bagerhat was built in the 15th century and is the largest historical mosque in Bangladesh, as well as a World Heritage site.

Shamsuddin Iliyas Shah founded an independent dynasty that lasted from 1342-1487 which successfully repulsed attempts by Delhi to rein them in. They continued to reel in the territory of modern-day Bengal, reaching to Khulna in the south and Sylhet in the east. The sultans advanced civic institutions and became more responsive and "native" in their outlook, cut loose from Delhi. Considerable architectural projects were completed in Gaur including the massive Adina Mosque and the 1479 Darasbari Mosque which still stands in Bangladesh near the border. The Sultans of Bangalah were patrons of Bengali literature and began a process in which a common Bengali culture and identity would coalesce.

The Ilyas Shahi Dynasty was interrupted by an uprising of the Hindus under Ganesh. However the Ilyas Shahi dynasty was restored by Nasiruddin Mahmud Shah, which was finally overthrown by the Habshi (Abyssinian) slaves of the sultanate.

Hussain Shahi dynasty

The Habshi rule gave way to the Hussain Shahi dynasty that ruled from 1494-1538. Alauddin Hussain Shah, considered as the greatest of all the sultans of Bengal for the cultural renaissance during his reign, conquered Kamarupa, Kamata, Jajnagar, Orissa and extended the sultanate all the way to the port of Chittagong, which witnessed the arrival of the first Portuguese merchants.

Nasiruddin Nusrat Shah gave refuge to the Afghan lords during the invasion of Babur though he remained neutral. However Nusrat Shah made a treaty with Babur and saved Bengal from a Mughal invasion.

The last Sultan of the dynasty, who continued to rule from Gaur, had to contend with rising Afghan activity on his northwestern border. Eventually, the Afghans broke through and sacked the capital in 1538 where they remained for several decades until the arrival of the Mughals.

Pashtun rule

[edit] Suri dynasty

Sher Shah Suri established the Sur dynasty in Bengal. After the battle of Chausa he declared himself independent Sultan of Bengal and Bihar. Sher Shah was the only Muslim Sultan of Bengal to establish an empire in northern India.The Delhi sultan Islam Shah appointed Muhammad Khan sur as the governor of Bengal. After the death of Islam Shah Muhammad Khan Sur became independent. Muhammad Khan Sur was followed by Ghyiasuddin Bahadur Shah and Ghyiasuddin Jalal shah. The Pashtun rule in Bengal remained for 44 years. Their most impressive achievement was Sher Shah's construction of the Grand Trunk Road connecting Sonargaon, Delhi and Peshawar.

[edit] Karrani dynasty

The Sur dynasty was followed by the Karrani dynasty. Sulaiman Karrani annexed Orissa to the Muslim sultanate permanently. Daud Shah Karrani declared independence from Akbar which led to four years of bloody war between the Mughals and the Pashtuns. The Mughal onslaught against the Afghan Sultan ended with the battle of Rajmahal in 1576, led by Khan Jahan. However, the Pashtun and the local landlords (Baro Bhuyans) led by Isa Khan resisted the Mughal invasion.

Mughal period

The Lalbagh Fort was developed by Shaista Khan.

Bengal came once more under the suzerainty of Delhi as the Mughals conquered it in 1576. Not far from Sonargaon, Dhaka rose from the mists of obscurity as a Mughal provincial capital. But it remained remote and thus a difficult to govern region--especially the section east of the Brahmaputra River--outside the mainstream of Mughal politics. The Bengali ethnic and linguistic identity further crystallized during this period, since the whole of Bengal was united under an able and long-lasting administration. Furthermore its inhabitants were given sufficient autonomy to cultivate their own customs and literature.

In 1612, during Emperor Jahangir's reign, the defeat of Sylhet completed the Mughal conquest of Bengal, except for Chittagong. At this time the capital was established at Dhaka. Chittagong was later annexed in order to stifle Arakanese raids from the east. A well-known Dhaka landmark, Lalbagh Fort, was built during Aurangzeb's sovereignty.

History repeated itself as the frontier Bengal province broke off from a Delhi-based empire around the time Aurangzeb's death in 1707. Murshid Quli Khan ended Dhaka's century of grandeur as he shifted the capital to Murshidabad ushering in a series of independent Bengal Nawabs. Nawab Alivardi Khan showed military skill during his wars with the Marathas. He completely routed the Marathas from Bengal. He crushed an uprising of the Afghans in Bihar and made the British pay 150,000 Tk for blocking Mughal and Armenian trade ships.

Europeans in Bengal

Portuguese traders and missionaries were the first Europeans to reach Bengal in the latter part of the fifteenth century. They were followed by representatives of the Dutch, the French, and the British East India Company). The Mughal Subahdar of Bengal Kasim Khan Mashadi completely destroyed the Portuguese forces in the Battle of Hoogly (1632). About 10,000 Portuguese men and women died in the battle and 4,400 were sent captive to Delhi.

During Aurangzeb's reign, the local Nawab sold three villages, including one then known as Calcutta, to the British. Calcutta was Britain's first foothold in Bengal and remained a focal point of their economic activity. The British gradually extended their commercial contacts and administrative control beyond Calcutta to the rest of Bengal. Job Charnock was one of the first dreamers of a British empire in Bengal. He almost waged war against the Mughal authority of Bengal which led to the Anglo-Mughal war of Bengal (1686-1690). Shaista Khan, the Nawab of Bengal, defeated the British in the battles of Hoogly, Baleshwar, and Hijly and expelled the British from Bengal. Captain William Heath with a naval fleet moved towards Chittagong but it was a failure and he had to retreat to Madras.

British rule

The Bengal Presidency of British India at its greatest extent in 1858.

The British East India Company gained official control of Bengal following the Battle of Plassey in 1757. This was the first conquest, in a series of engagements that ultimately lead to the expulsion of other European competitors, the defeat of the Mughals and the consolidation of the subcontinent under the rule of a corporation -- a unique event in imperialistic history. Kolkata (Anglicized as "Calcutta") on the Hooghly became a major trading port for Bamboo, Tea, Sugar cane, Spices, Cotton, Muslin and Jute produced in Dhaka, Rajshahi, Khulna and Kushtia and parts of the rest of Bengal.

Scandals and the bloody rebellion known as the Sepoy Mutiny prompted the British government to intervene in the affairs of the East India Company. In 1858, authority in India was transferred from the Company to the crown and the rebellion was brutally suppressed. Rule of India was organized under a Viceroy and continued a pattern of economic exploitation. Famine racked the subcontinent many times, including at least two major famines in Bengal. The British Raj was politically organized into seventeen provinces--of which Bengal was one of the most significant--most headed by a governor. For a brief period in the early twentieth century, an abortive attempt was made to divide Bengal into two zones, West Bengal and East Bengal & Assam.

Creation of Pakistan

Main article: East Pakistan

As the independence movement throughout British-controlled India began in the late nineteenth century gained momentum during the twentieth century, Bengali politicians played an active role in Mohandas Gandhi's Congress Party and Mohammad Ali Jinnah's Muslim League, exposing the opposing forces of ethnic and religious nationalism. By exploiting the latter, the British probably intended to distract the independence movement, for example by partitioning Bengal in 1905 along religious lines. The split only lasted for seven years. At first the Muslim League sought only to ensure minority rights in the future nation. In 1940 the Muslim League passed the Lahore Resolution which envisaged one or more Muslim majority states in South Asia. Non-negotiable was the inclusion of the Muslim parts of Punjab and Bengal in these proposed states. The stakes grew as a new Viceroy Lord Mountbatten was appointed expressly for the purpose of effecting a graceful British exit. Communal violence in Noakhali and Calcutta sparked a surge in support for the Muslim League, which won a majority of Bengal's Muslim seats in the 1946 election. Accusations have been made that Hindu and Muslim nationalist instigators were involved in the latter incident. At the last moment Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Sarat Chandra Bose came up with the idea of an independent and unified Bengal state, which was endorsed by Jinnah. This idea was vetoed by the Indian National Congress.

British India was partitioned and the independent states of India and Pakistan were created in 1947; the region of Bengal was divided along religious lines. The predominantly Muslim eastern half of Bengal became the East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan) state of Pakistan and the predominantly Hindu western part became the Indian state of West Bengal.

Pakistan's history from 1947 to 1971 was marked by political instability and economic difficulties. In 1956 a constitution was at last adopted, making the country an "Islamic republic within the Commonwealth". The nascent democratic institutions foundered in the face of military intervention in 1958, and the government imposed martial law between 1958 and 1962, and again between 1969 and 1971.

Almost from the advent of independent Pakistan in 1947, frictions developed between East and West Pakistan, which were separated by more than 1,000 miles of Indian territory. East Pakistanis felt exploited by the West Pakistan-dominated central government. Linguistic, cultural, and ethnic differences also contributed to the estrangement of East from West Pakistan.

When Mohammad Ali Jinnah died in September 1948, Khwaja Nazimuddin became the Governor General of Pakistan while Nurul Amin was appointed the Chief Minister of East Bengal. Nurul Amin continued as the Chief Minister of East Bengal until 2 April 1954. The abolition of the Zamindari system in East Bengal (1950) and the Language Movement were two most important events during his tenure.

The Bengali Language Movement

Main article: Bengali Language Movement

Bengali Language Movement procession march held on 21 February 1952 in Dhaka.

The question as to what would be the state language of Pakistan was raised immediately after its creation. The central leaders and the Urdu-speaking intellectuals of Pakistan declared that Urdu would be the state language of Pakistan, just as Hindi was the state language of India. However, Bengalis strongly resisted attempts to impose Urdu as the sole official language of Pakistan, and the students and intellectuals of East Pakistan, demanded that Bengali (Bangla) be made one of the state languages, arguing that it was in any case the native language of the majority (54% native speakers as opposed to 7% native Urdu speakers) in the whole of Pakistan.

The Bengali Language Movement began in 1948 and reached its climax in a demonstration on 21 February 1952 at which several demonstrators were killed by police. After a lot of controversy over the language issue, the final demand from East Pakistan was that Bangla must be the official language and the medium of instruction in East Pakistan, and that for the central government it would be one of the state languages along with Urdu. The first movement on this issue was mobilised by Tamaddun Majlish headed by Professor Abul Kashem. Gradually many other non-communal and progressive organisations joined the movement, which finally turned into a mass movement, and ended in the adoption of Bengali as one of the state languages of Pakistan.

Politics: 1954 - 1970

Main article: History of Bangladesh (1947-1971)

The first election for East Bengal Provincial Assembly was held between 8 March and 12 March 1954. The Awami Muslim League, Krishak-Sramik Party and Nezam-e-Islam formed the United Front, on the basis of 21-points agenda.

Notable pledges contained in the 21-points were:

making Bengali one of the main state languages
autonomy for the province
reforms in education
independence of the judiciary
making the legislative assembly effective

The United Front won 215 out of 237 Muslim seats in the election. The ruling Muslim League got only nine seats. Khilafat-E-Rabbani Party got one, while the independents got twelve seats. Later, seven independent members joined the United Front while one joined the Muslim League.

There were numerous reasons for the debacle of the Muslim League. Above all, the Muslim League regime angered all sections of the people of Bengal by opposing the demand for recognition of Bangla as one of the state languages and by ordering the massacre of 1952.

The United Front got the opportunity to form the provincial government after winning absolute majority in the 1954 election. Of the 222 United Front seats, the Awami Muslim League had won 142, Krishak-Sramik Party 48, Nezam-i-Islam 19, and Ganatantri Dal 13.

The major leaders of the United Front were Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy and Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhasani of Awami Muslim League and A. K. Fazlul Huq of Krishak-Sramik Party. Suhrawardy and Bhasani did not take part in the election and Fazlul Huq was invited to form the government. But a rift surfaced at the very outset on the question of formation of the cabinet. The unity and solidarity among the component parties of the United Front soon evaporated. Finally, on 15 May, Fazlul Huq arrived at an understanding with the Awami Muslim League and formed a 14-member cabinet with five members from that party.

But this cabinet lasted for only fourteen days. The Muslim League could not concede defeat in the elections in good grace. So, they resorted to conspiracies to dismiss the United Front government. In the third week of May, there were bloody riots between Bengali and non-Bengali workers in different mills and factories of East Bengal. The United Front government was blamed for failing to control the law and order situation in the province.

Fazlul Huq was then quoted in an interview taken by The New York Times correspondent John P Callaghan and published in a distorted form that he wanted the independence of East Bengal. Finally, on 29 May 1954, the United Front government was dismissed by the central government and Governor's rule was imposed in the province, which lasted till 2 June 1955.

Curiously enough within two months of his sacking, Fazlul Huq was appointed the central Home Minister. As Home Minister, Fazlul Huq utilised his influence to bring his party to power in East Bengal. Naturally, the United Front broke up. The Muslim members of the United Front split into two groups. In 1955 the Awami Muslim League adopted the path of secularism and non-communalism, erased the word 'Muslim' from its nomenclature and adopted the name "Awami League".^[4]

Great differences began developing between the two wings of Pakistan. While the west had a minority share of Pakistan's total population, it had the largest share of revenue allocation, industrial development, agricultural reforms and civil development projects. Pakistan's military and civil services were dominated by the fair-skinned, Persian-cultured Punjabis and Afghans. Only one regiment in the Pakistani Army was Bengali. And many Bengali Pakistanis could not share the natural enthusiasm for the Kashmir issue, which they felt was leaving East Pakistan more vulnerable and threatened as a result.

Independence

Main article: Bangladesh Liberation War

Illustration showing military units and troop movements during the war.

After the Awami League won all the East Pakistan seats of the Pakistan's National Assembly in the 1970-71 elections, West Pakistan opened talks with the East on constitutional questions about the division of power between the central government and the provinces, as well as the formation of a national government headed by the Awami League.

The talks proved unsuccessful, however, and on March 1, 1971, Pakistani President Yahya Khan indefinitely postponed the pending National Assembly session, precipitating massive civil disobedience in East Pakistan.

On March 2, 1971, A group of students, led by A S M Abdur Rob,Student leader & VP of DUCSU (Dhaka University Central Students Union) raised the new (proposed) flag of Bangla under the direction of Swadhin Bangla NUCLEUS.

On March 3, 1971, Student leader Sahjahan Siraj read the Sadhinotar Ishtehar (Declaration of independence) at Paltan Maidan in front of Bangabandhu Shaikh Mujib along with student and public gathering.

On March 7, there was a historical public gathering in Paltan Maidan to hear the guideline for the revolution and independence from Shaikh Mujib, the frontier leader of movement that time. Although he avoided the direct speech of independence as the talks were still underway, he influenced the mob to prepare for the separation war. The speech is still considered a key moment in the war of liberation, and is remembered for the phrase, "Ebarer Shongram Muktir Shongram, Ebarer Shongram Shadhinotar Shongram...." ("This time, the revolution is for freedom; this time, the revolution is for liberation....")

Formal Declaration of Independence

After the military crackdown by the Pakistan army began on the night of March 25, 1971 Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested and the political leaders dispersed, mostly fleeing to neighbouring India where they organized a provisional government afterwards. Before being held up by the Pakistani Army Sheikh Mujibur Rahman gave a hand note of the declaration of the independence of Bangladesh and it was circulated amongst people and transmitted by the the then East Pakistan Rifles' wireless transmitter. In chittagong on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Awami League Leader M. A. Hannan first read the declaration of independence on the Radio. A few Bangalee Radio Professionals organized together to build up Shadhin Bangla Betar Kendro ( Radio Station of Independent Bengal) and asked the Bengali Army Major Zia-Ur-Rahman to read the declaration of independence of Bangladesh on the independent Radio. On 27th march Major Zia read the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, "I, Major Zia-ur-Rahman, who hereby declare the independence of Bangladesh, on behalf of our great national leader Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman".

The Bangladesh Government was formed in Meherpur, (later renamed as Mujibnagar a place adjacent to the Indian Border). Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was announced to be the head of the state. Tajuddin Ahmed became the prime minister of the government. There the war plan was sketched.

A war force was established named "Muktibahini". M. A. G. Osmani was assigned as the Chief of the force. The land sketched into 11 sectors under 11 sector commanders. Along with this sectors on the later part of the war Three special forces were formed namely Z Force, S Force and K Force. These three forces name were derived from the initial letter of the commandar's name.

The training and most of the arms-ammunitions were arranged by the Meherpur government which were supported by India.

As fighting grew between the Pakistan Army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini ("freedom fighters"), an estimated ten million Bengalis, mainly Hindus, sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam, Tripura and West Bengal.

The crisis in East Pakistan produced new strains in Pakistan's troubled relations with India. The two nations had fought a war in 1965, mainly in the west, but the refugee pressure in India in the fall of 1971 produced new tensions in the east. Indian sympathies lay with East Pakistan, and on December 3, 1971, India intervened on the side of the Bangladeshis. On December 16, 1971, Pakistani forces surrendered, and Bangla Desh ("Country of Bangla") was finally established the following day. The new country changed its name to Bangladesh on January 11, 1972 and became a parliamentary democracy under a constitution. Shortly thereafter on March 19 Bangladesh signed a friendship treaty with India.

Post-independence

Main article: History of Bangladesh after independence

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, 1972-75

Main articles: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman and Awami League

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman came to office with immense personal popularity but had difficulty transforming this popular support into the political strength needed to function as head of government. The 1972 constitution adopted as state policy the Awami League (AL) four basic principles of nationalism, secularism, socialism, and democracy.^[5]

The first parliamentary elections were held in March 1973, with the Awami League winning a massive majority. The new Bangladesh government focused on relief, rehabilitation, and reconstruction of the economy and society. In December 1974, in the face of continuing economic deterioration and mounting civil disorder, Mujib proclaimed a state of emergency, limited the powers of the legislative and judicial branches, banned all the newspaper except four government supported papers, and introduced one-party system baning all the other parties.

Despite some improvement in the economic situation during the first half of 1975, criticism of Mujib grew. In August 1975, Mujib, and most of his family, were assassinated by mid-level army officers. A new government, headed by former Mujib associate Khandakar Moshtaque, was formed.^[5]

Ziaur Rahman, 1975-81

Main articles: Ziaur Rahman and Bangladesh Nationalist Party

Successive military coups resulted in the emergence of Army Chief of Staff Gen. Ziaur Rahman ("Zia") as strongman. In the historic 7th November 1975, "Jatiyo Biplob O Shanghoti Dibosh" the army captured the power freed Major Zia. He pledged the army's support to the civilian government headed by President Chief Justice Sayem. Acting at Zia's behest, Sayem dissolved Parliament, and instituted the Martial Law Administration (MLA).^[5]

In November 1976, Zia became Chief Martial Law Administrator (CMLA) and assumed the presidency upon Sayem's retirement five months later, promising national elections in 1978.^[5]

As President, Zia announced a 19-point program of economic reform and began dismantling the MLA. Zia won a five-year term in June 1978 elections, with 76% of the vote. Democracy and constitutional order were fully restored when the ban on political parties was lifted, new parliamentary elections were held in February 1979. The AL and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP), founded by Zia, emerged as the two major parties.^[5]

In May 1981, Zia was assassinated in Chittagong by dissident elements of the military. The conspirators were either taken into custody or killed. Vice President Justice Abdus Sattar was sworn in as acting president, and elected president as the BNP's candidate six months later. Sattar followed the policies of his predecessor and retained essentially the same cabinet.^[5]

Hussain Mohammed Ershad, 1982-90

Main articles: Hussain Mohammed Ershad and Jatiya Party

In March 1982 Army Chief of Staff Lt. Gen. H.M. Ershad suspended the constitution and declared martial law citing pervasive corruption, ineffectual government, and economic mismanagement. The following year, Ershad assumed the presidency, and won overwhelming public support for his regime in a national referendum in March 1985, although turnout was small. Political life was liberalized through 1985 and 1986, and the Jatiya (National) Party was established as Ershad’s vehicle for the transition back to democracy.^[5]

Parliamentary elections were held in May 1986, but were boycotted by the BNP, now led by President Zia's widow, Begum Khaleda Zia,. The Jatiya Party won a modest majority of the 300 elected seats in the National Assembly. The participation of the Awami League -- led by the late President Mujib's daughter, Sheikh Hasina Wajed -- lent the elections some credibility, despite widespread charges of voting irregularities.^[5]

Ershad retired from military service in preparation for the presidential elections in October 1986, and won 84% of the vote. Protesting that martial law was still in effect, both the BNP and the AL refused to put up opposing candidates.^[5] In November 1986, martial law was lifted, and the opposition parties took their elected seats in the National Assembly.^[5]

In July 1987, after the government hastily pushed through a bill to include military representation on local administrative councils, the opposition walked out of Parliament. As the opposition organized protest marches and nationwide strikes, the government arrested scores of opposition activists. After declaring a state of emergency, Ershad dissolved Parliament and scheduled fresh elections for March 1988.^[5]

The elections were held despite an opposition boycott, and the ruling Jatiya Party won 251 of the 300 seats. The Parliament passed a large number of bills, including in June 1988 a controversial constitutional amendment making Islam Bangladesh's state religion.^[5]

On December 6, 1990, following general strikes, increased campus protests, public rallies, and a general disintegration of law and order,^[5] Ershad resigned. On February 27, 1991, an interim government headed by Acting President Chief Justice Shahabuddin Ahmed oversaw what most observers believed to be the nation's most free and fair elections to that date.and..^[5]

Khaleda Zia, 1991-96

Main article: Khaleda Zia

BNP won a plurality of seats and formed a government with Khaleda Zia, widow of Ziaur Rahman, becoming prime minister. The electorate approved changes to the constitution, formally re-creating a \In March 1994, controversy over a parliamentary by-election, which the opposition claimed the government had rigged, led to general strikes and an indefinite boycott of Parliament by the opposition. In late December 1994, the opposition resigned en masse from Parliament, and pledged to boycott national elections scheduled for February 15, 1996.^[5]

In February, Khaleda Zia was re-elected by a landslide in voting boycotted by the three main opposition parties. In March 1996, following escalating political turmoil, the Parliament amended the constitution to allow a neutral caretaker government to assume power and conduct new parliamentary elections.

Sheikh Hasina, 1996-2001

Main article: Sheikh Hasina

Elections were held in June 1996 which were found by international and domestic election observers to be free and fair. The Awami League won a plurality of the seats, and formed the government with support from the Jatiya Party of deposed president Ershad. AL leader Sheikh Hasina became Prime Minister.^[5]

In June 1999, the BNP and other opposition parties again began to boycott Parliament, and stage nationwide general strikes. A four-party opposition alliance formed at the beginning of 1999 announced that it would boycott parliamentary by-elections and local government elections.^[5]

general election to be held on October 1, 2001.^[5]

Four Party Aliiance led by BNP, 2001-2006

The four-party alliance led by the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) won over a two-thirds majority in Parliament. Begum Khaleda Zia was sworn in on October 10, 2001, as Prime Minister for the third time.^[5]

An grenade attack on a rally of Sheikh Hasina killed 23 people on August 21, 2004. On August 17, 2005, near-synchronized blasts of improvised explosive devices in 63 out of 64 administrative districts targeted mainly government buildings and killed two persons. An extremist Islamist group named Jama'atul Mujahideen, Bangladesh (JMB) claimed responsibility for the blasts, which aimed to press home JMB's demand for a replacement of the secular legal system with Islamic sharia courts. Hundreds of senior and mid-level JMB leaders were arrested.^[5]

In February 2006, after sporadic boycotts, the AL returned to Parliament, demanded early elections and requested significant changes in the electoral and caretaker government systems to stop alleged moves by the ruling coalition to rig the next election. Dialogue between the Secretaries General of the main ruling and opposition parties failed to sort out the electoral reform issues.^[5]

In July 2001, the Awami League government stepped down to allow a caretaker government to preside over parliamentary elections. In August, Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina agreed to respect the results of the election, join Parliament win or lose, foreswear the use of hartals (violently enforced strikes) as political tools, and if successful in forming a government allow for a more meaningful role for the opposition in Parliament. The caretaker government was successful in containing the violence, which allowed a parliamentary

Caretaker Government, Oct 2006-Jan 2009

Grand Alliance January 2009-present

On 19 November 2008 Awami League & Jatiya Party agreed to contest the elections jointly under the Caretaker Government to be held on 29 December 2008. Out of the 300 Constituencies in the Parliament, Ershad's Jatiya Party will contest from 49 seats and Awami League and members of a leftist wing Fourteen Party Coalition from the rest 250 seats.^[7] Thus the Grand Alliance emerged in Bangladesh; known as Mohajote in Bangla

On December 29, 2008 Bangladesh went to the polls and the nation elected the Grand Alliance which was led by Sheikh Hasina's Awami League and backed by Hussain Mohammed Ershad's Jatiya Party. On the other hand Khaleda Zia's BNP-led Four Party Alliance plagued by allegations of Khaleda Zia's ^[8]^[9] and her infamous son Tareq Rahman's corruption allegations ^[10] ^[11]^[12], suffered the most embarassing defeat ever in Bangladesh's history.

Sheikh Hasina became Prime Minister and formed the government and a cabinet which included ministers from Jatiya Party although any post for Hussain Mohammed Ershad, is yet to be decided as the earlier agreed Presidency seems elusive.

The mutiny of borderguards (BDR) took place from 25 to 27 February 2009. More than a thousand BDR soldiers took over the BDR headquarters, and held many of their officers hostage. By the second day fighting spread to 12 other towns and cities.^[13]^[14] The mutiny ended as the mutineers surrendered their arms and released the hostages^[15] after a series of discussions and negotiations with the government.^[16] Out of 181 army officers that were at the BDR headquarters when the revolt started only 33 survived.

References

James Heitzman and Robert L. Worden, ed (1989). "Early History, 1000 B. C.-A. D. 1202". Bangladesh: A country study. Library of Congress. http://memory.loc.gov/frd/cs/bdtoc.html.
History, Banglapedia
RIYAZU-S-SALĀTĪN: A History of Bengal, Ghulam Husain Salim, The Asiatic Society, Calcutta, 1902.
Banglapedia
^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x "Background Note: Bangladesh". Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs (March 2008). Accessed June 11, 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
http://www.thedailystar.net/story.php?nid=64131
http://www.bangladeshnews.com.bd/2008/11/19/jp-aboard-al-polls-boat
The Associated Press Published: September 2, 2007 (2007-09-02). "Ex-PM sued on corruption charges in Bangladesh". International Herald Tribune. http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/09/02/asia/AS-GEN-Bangladesh-Ex-Prime-Minister.php. Retrieved on 2009-01-15.
"Bangladesh former PM is arrested". BBC News. 2007-09-03. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6975340.stm. Retrieved on 2009-01-15.
"South Asia | Khaleda Zia's son is refused bail". BBC News. 2007-03-13. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/6446065.stm. Retrieved on 2009-01-15.
"Those shameless corrupts in Bangladesh". Asian Tribune. http://www.asiantribune.com/index.php?q=node/427. Retrieved on 2009-01-15.
"The Daily Star Web Edition Vol. 5 Num 1066". Thedailystar.net. 2007-06-01. http://www.thedailystar.net/2007/06/01/d7060101011.htm. Retrieved on 2009-01-15.
(Bengali)"বিডিআর জওয়ানদের বিদ্রোহ নিহতের সংখ্যা ১৫ বলে দাবি * মহাপরিচালক শাকিল বেঁচে নেই * জিম্মি কর্মকর্তাদের পরিণতি অজানা", Prothom Alo: 1, 26 February, http://www.prothom-alo.com/index.news.details.php?nid=MjIxOTM=
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7911524.stm
"Bangladesh guard mutiny 'is over'", BBC World: 1, 26 February, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/7912392.stm
"অবশেষে আত্মসমর্পণ". Prothom Alo. 27 February 2009

Etymology

2009-05-18T01:37:00.000-07:00

The exact origin of the word Bangla or Bengal is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from the Dravidian-speaking tribe Bang/Banga that settled in the area around the year 1000 BCE.^[1]^[2]

Other accounts speculate that the name is derived from Vanga (bôngo), which came from the Austric word "Bonga" meaning the Sun-god. According to Mahabharata, Purana, Harivamsha Vanga was one of the adopted sons of king Vali who founded the Vanga kingdom. The Muslim Accounts refer that "Bong", a son of Hind (son of Hām who was a son of Prophet Noah/Nooh) colonized the area for the first time. The earliest reference to "Vangala"(bôngal) has been traced in the Nesari plates (805 AD) of Rashtrakuta Govinda III which speak of Dharmapala as the king of Vangala. Shams-ud-din Ilyas Shah took the title "Shah-e-Bangalah" and united the whole region under one government for the first time.

Foreign relations of Bangladesh and Military of Bangladesh

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Bangladesh pursues a moderate foreign policy that places heavy reliance on multinational diplomacy, especially at the United Nations. In 1974 Bangladesh joined both the Commonwealth of Nations and the United Nations and has since been elected to serve two terms on the Security Council in 1978-1979 and 2000–2001. In the 1980s, Bangladesh played a lead role in founding the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in order to expand relations with other South Asian states. Since the founding of SAARC 1985, a Bangladeshi has held the post of Secretary General on two occasions.

Bangladesh's most important and complex foreign relationships are with India. These relationships are informed by historical and cultural ties and form an important part of the domestic political discourse.

Bangladesh's relationship with India began on a positive note because of India's assistance in the independence war and reconstruction. Throughout the years, relations between both countries have fluctuated for a number of reasons. The Washington Post reported on a major source of tension between Bangladesh and India, the Farakka Dam.^[34] In 1975, India constructed a dam on the Ganges River 11 miles (18 km) from the Bangladeshi border. Bangladesh alleges that the dam diverts much needed water from Bangladesh and adds a man-made disaster to the country already plagued by natural disasters. The dam also has terrible ecological consequences.^[34] On the other hand, India has voiced concerns about anti-Indian separatists and Islamic militants allegedly being harboured across their 2,500-mile (4,000 km) border, as well as the flow of illegal migrants, and is building a fence along most of it.^[35] But at the 2007 SAARC meeting both nations pledged to work cooperatively on security, economic and border issues.^[36]

The current strength of the army is around 200,000, the air force 7,000,^{[citation needed]} and navy 14,950.^[37] In addition to traditional defense roles, the military has been called on to provide support to civil authorities for disaster relief and internal security during periods of political unrest. Bangladesh is not currently active in any ongoing war, but it did contribute 2,300 troops to the coalition that fought in the 1991 Persian Gulf War and Bangladesh is consistently a top contributor to UN peacekeeping forces around the world. As of May 2007, Bangladesh had major deployments in Democratic Republic of Congo, Liberia, Sudan, Timor-Leste and Côte d'Ivoire.^[38]

Bangladesh enjoys relatively warm ties with the People's Republic of China which has, particularly in the past decade, increased economic cooperation with the South Asian nation. Between 2006-07, trade between the two nations rose by 28.5% and there have been agreements to grant various Bangladeshi commodities tariff-free access to the Chinese market. Cooperation between the Military of Bangladesh and the People's Liberation Army is also increasing, with joint military agreements signed and Bangladesh procuring Chinese arms which range from small arms to large naval surface combatants such as the Chinese Type 053H1 Missile Frigate.

Politics of Bangladesh

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Bangladesh is a parliamentary democracy.^[26] Direct elections involving all citizens over the age 18 are held every five years for the unicameral parliament known as Jatiya Sangsad. The parliament building is known as the Jatiyo Sangshad Bhaban designed by architect Louis Kahn and currently has 345 members including 45 reserved seats for women, elected from single-member constituencies. The Prime Minister, as the head of government, forms the cabinet and runs the day-to-day affairs of state. While the Prime Minister is formally appointed by the President, he or she must be an MP who commands the confidence of the majority of parliament. The President is the head of state, a largely ceremonial post elected by the parliament.^[27]

However the President's powers are substantially expanded during the tenure of a caretaker government, which is responsible for the conduct of elections and transfer of power. The officers of the caretaker government must be non-partisan and are given three months to complete their task. This transitional arrangement is an innovation that was pioneered by Bangladesh in its 1991 election and then institutionalised in 1996 through its 13th constitutional amendment.^[28]

The Constitution of Bangladesh was drafted in 1972 and has undergone fourteen amendments.^[28] The highest judicial body is the Supreme Court. Justices are appointed by the President. The judicial and law enforcement institutions are weak.^[29] Separation of powers, judicial from executive was finally implemented on the 1st of November, 2007. It is expected that this separation will make the judiciary stronger and impartial. Laws are loosely based on English common law, but family laws such as marriage and inheritance are based on religious scripts, and therefore differ between religious communities.

The two major parties in Bangladesh are the Bangladesh Awami League and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP). BNP is led by Khaleda Zia and finds its allies among Islamist parties like Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh and Islami Oikya Jot, while Sheikh Hasina's Awami League aligns with leftist and secularist parties. Hasina and Zia are bitter rivals who have dominated politics for 15 years; both are women and each is related to one of the leaders of the independence movement. Another important player is the Jatiya Party, headed by former military ruler Ershad. The Awami League-BNP rivalry has been bitter and punctuated by protests, violence and murder. Student politics is particularly strong in Bangladesh, a legacy from the liberation movement era. Almost all parties have highly active student wings, and students have been elected to the Parliament.

Two radical Islamist parties, Jagrata Muslim Janata Bangladesh (JMJB) and Jama'atul Mujahideen Bangladesh (JMB), were banned in February 2005. Bomb attacks taking place since 1999 have been blamed on those groups, and hundreds of suspected members have been detained in numerous security operations, including the head of those two parties in 2006. The first recorded case of a suicide bomb attack in Bangladesh took place in November 2005.

The January 22, 2007 election was postponed indefinitely and emergency law declared in January 11, 2007 as Army backed caretaker government of Fakhruddin Ahmed aims to prepare a new voter list and crack down on corruption. The government aims to hold new elections by 2008 but a lack of coordination between the Election Commission and the Government and Political Parties threatens to undermine this deadline. Recent activities of Government have created uncertainty about Election while Khaleda Zia and Sheikh Hasina, two leader of major Political parties BNP and Awami League who ruled the country for the last 15 years, were detained and are facing criminal charges in court and the banned indoor politics is yet to be exercised.

Meanwhile the Bangladesh Military has expressed their interest in controlling the country with statements like "own brand of Democracy" and making changes in the constitution to allow military participation in politics.^[30] They are also assisting the interim Government of Bangladesh in a drive against corruption which seems to be mostly targeted against the politicians and opponents. The military has also imposed censorship of the national media and closing down/hampering private TV stations.^[31] Illegal detentions and torture to extract confessions have also become rampant.^[32]

Grand alliance leaded by Awami League won the December 29, 2008 poll. Bangladesh Awami League won a landslide victory. They got 230 seats among 300 seats in the parliament.^[33]

History Of Bangladesh

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Remnants of civilization in the greater Bengal region date back four thousand years,^[7] when the region was settled by Dravidian, Tibeto-Burman, and Austro-Asiatic peoples. The exact origin of the word "Bangla" or "Bengal" is unknown, though it is believed to be derived from Bang, the Dravidian-speaking tribe that settled in the area around the year 1000 BC.^[8]

The kingdom of Gangaridai was formed from at least the seventh century BC, which later united with Bihar under the Magadha, Nanda, Mauryan and Sunga Empires. Bengal was later part of the Gupta Empire and Harsha Empire from the third to the sixth centuries CE. Following its collapse, a dynamic Bengali named Shashanka founded an impressive yet short-lived kingdom. Shashanka is considered the first independent king in the history of Bangladesh. After a period of anarchy, the Buddhist Pala dynasty ruled the region for four hundred years, followed by a shorter reign of the Hindu Sena dynasty. Islam was introduced to Bengal in the twelfth century by Arab Muslim merchants and Sufi missionaries, and subsequent Muslim conquests helped spread Islam throughout the region.^[9] Bakhtiar Khilji, a Turkic general, defeated Lakshman Sen of the Sena dynasty and conquered large parts of Bengal. The region was ruled by dynasties of Sultans and feudal lords for the next few hundred years. By the 16th century, the Mughal Empire controlled Bengal, and Dhaka became an important provincial centre of Mughal administration.

European traders arrived late in the 15th century, and their influence grew until the British East India Company gained control of Bengal following the Battle of Plassey in 1757.^[10] The bloody rebellion of 1857, known as the Sepoy Mutiny, resulted in transfer of authority to the crown, with a British viceroy running the administration.^[11] During colonial rule, famine racked the Indian subcontinent many times, including the Great Bengal famine of 1943 that claimed 3 million lives.^[12]

Between 1905 and 1911, an abortive attempt was made to divide the province of Bengal into two zones, with Dhaka being the capital of the eastern zone.^[13] When India was partitioned in 1947, Bengal was partitioned along religious lines, with the western part going to India and the eastern part joining Pakistan as a province called East Bengal (later renamed East Pakistan), with its capital at Dhaka.^[14] In 1950, land reform was accomplished in East Bengal with the abolishment of the feudal zamindari system.^[15] However, despite the economic and demographic weight of the east, Pakistan's government and military were largely dominated by the upper classes from the west. The Bengali Language Movement of 1952 was the first sign of friction between the two wings of Pakistan.^[16] Dissatisfaction with the central government over economic and cultural issues continued to rise through the next decade, during which the Awami League emerged as the political voice of the Bengali-speaking population. It agitated for autonomy in the 1960s, and in 1966, its president Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was jailed; he was released in 1969 after an unprecedented popular uprising.

In 1970, a massive cyclone devastated the coast of East Pakistan, and the central government responded poorly. The Bengali population's anger was compounded when Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, whose Awami League won a majority in Parliament in the 1970 elections,^[17] was blocked from taking office. After staging compromise talks with Mujib, President Yahya Khan arrested him on the early hours of March 26, 1971, and launched Operation Searchlight,^[18] a sustained military assault on East Pakistan. Yahya's methods were extremely bloody, and the violence of the war resulted in many civilian deaths .^[19] Chief targets included intellectuals and Hindus, and about ten million refugees fled to neighbouring India.^[20] Estimates of those massacred throughout the war range from three hundred thousand to 3 million.^[21]

Prior to his arrest by Pakistan army, Sk. Mujibur Rahman formally declared the independence of Bangladesh and directed everyone to fight till the last soldier of the Pakistan army was evicted from East Pakistan. Most of the Awami League leaders fled and set up a government-in-exile in Calcutta, India. The exile government formally took oath at Mujib Nagar in Kustia district of East Pakistan on April 14, 1971. The Bangladesh Liberation War lasted for nine months. The guerrilla Mukti Bahini and Bengali regulars eventually received support from the Indian Armed Forces in December 1971. Mitro Bahini achieved a decisive victory over Pakistan on December 16, 1971, taking over 90,000 prisoners of war.

Jatiyo Smriti Soudho, a tribute to the martyrs of the Bangladesh Liberation War.

After its independence, Bangladesh became a parliamentary democracy, with Mujib as the Prime Minister. In the 1973 parliamentary elections, the Awami League gained an absolute majority. A nationwide famine occurred during 1973 and 1974,^[12] and in early 1975, Mujib initiated a one-party socialist rule with his newly formed BAKSAL. On August 15, 1975, Mujib and his family were assassinated by mid-level military officers.^[22]

A series of bloody coups and counter-coups in the following three months culminated in the ascent to power of General Ziaur Rahman, who reinstated multi-party politics and founded the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP). Zia's rule ended when he was assassinated in 1981 by elements of the military.^[22] Bangladesh's next major ruler was General Hossain Mohammad Ershad, who gained power in a bloodless coup in 1982 and ruled until 1990, when he was forced to resign under western donor pressure in a major shift in international policy after the end of communism when anti-communist dictators were no longer felt necessary. Since then, Bangladesh has reverted to a parliamentary democracy. Zia's widow, Khaleda Zia, led the Bangladesh Nationalist Party to parliamentary victory at the general election in 1991 and became the first female Prime Minister in Bangladesh's history. However, the Awami League, headed by Sheikh Hasina, one of Mujib's surviving daughters, clinched power at the next election in 1996 but lost to the Bangladesh Nationalist Party again in 2001.

In January 11, 2007, following widespread violence, a caretaker government was appointed to administer the next general election. The country had suffered from extensive corruption,^[23] disorder and political violence. The new caretaker government has made it a priority to root out corruption from all levels of government. To this end, many notable politicians and officials, along with large numbers of lesser officials and party members, have been arrested on corruption charges. The caretaker government held a fair and free election on December 29, 2008.^[24] Awami League's Sheikh Hasina won the elections with a landslide victory and took oath of Prime Minister on 6 Jan 2009.^[25]

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^ ^a ^b ^c CIA World Factbook 2007
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d "Bangladesh". International Monetary Fund. http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=513&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=52&pr.y=11. Retrieved on 2009-04-22.
^ [http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/COUNTRIES/SOUTHASIAEXT/0,,contentMDK:21421907~pagePK:146736~piPK:146830~theSitePK:223547,00.html Sandeep Mahajan, "Bangladesh: Strategy for Sustained Growth", Poverty Reduction and Economic Management Network, World Bank (July 26, 2007)]
^ "Bangladesh emergency laws lifted." Al Jazeera. Wednesday 17 December, 2008. Retrieved on 17 February 2009.
^ ^a ^b Bangladesh - Country Brief, World Bank, July 2005
^ Bharadwaj, G (2003). "The Ancient Period". in Majumdar, RC. History of Bengal. B.R. Publishing Corp.
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^ Eaton, R (1996). The Rise of Islam and the Bengal Frontier. University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-20507-3. OCLC 26634922 76881262.
^ Baxter, C (1997). Bangladesh, from a Nation to a State. Westview Press. ISBN 0-8133-3632-5. OCLC 47885632.
^ Baxter, pp.30-32
^ ^a ^b Sen, Amartya (1973). Poverty and Famines. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-828463-2. OCLC 10362534 177334002 191827132 31051320 40394309 53621338 63294006.
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^ Collins, L; D Lapierre (1986). Freedom at Midnight, Ed. 18. Vikas Publishers, New Delhi. ISBN 0-7069-2770-2.
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^ Salik, Siddiq (1978). Witness to Surrender. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-577264-4.
^ Rummel, Rudolph J., "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900", ISBN 3-8258-4010-7, Chapter 8, table 8.1. Rummel comments that, In East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) [General Agha Mohammed Yahya Khan and his top generals] also planned to murder its Bengali intellectual, cultural, and political elite. They also planned to indiscriminately murder hundreds of thousands of its Hindus and drive the rest into India. And they planned to destroy its economic base to insure that it would be subordinate to West Pakistan for at least a generation to come. This despicable and cutthroat plan was outright genocide.
^ LaPorte, R (1972). "Pakistan in 1971: The Disintegration of a Nation". Asian Survey 12(2): 97–108.
^ Rummel, Rudolph J., "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900", ISBN 3-8258-4010-7, Chapter 8, Table 8.2 Pakistan Genocide in Bangladesh Estimates, Sources, and Calcualtions.
^ ^a ^b Mascarenhas, A (1986). Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood. Hodder & Stoughton, London. ISBN 0-340-39420-X. OCLC 13004864 16583315 242251870.
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^ Background Note: Bangladesh, US Department of State, May 2007
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^ India quietly ringing Bangladesh with barbed-wire, cutting off former neighbors, by Tim Sullivan, Associated Press, June 25, 2007
^ Pattanaik, Smruti S., "India-Bangladesh Relations after the Foreign Secretary Level Talks," IDSA (Institute for Defense Studies and Analyses), July 17, 2007. Retrieved July 17, 2007.
^ Including service and civilian personnel. See Bangladesh Navy. Retrieved July 17, 2007.
^ "TOTAL BD PARTICIPATION IN UN DEPL (COMPLETED)". Bangladesh Army. February 2007. http://army.mil.bd/newahq/index5.php?category=177. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.
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^ ^a ^b "Statistical pocket book Bangladesh - 2007". Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. http://www.bbs.gov.bd/dataindex/pb_wb_page.pdf. Retrieved on 2009-01-29.
^ "Trans-boundary Rivers". Banglapedia. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/T_0210.htm. Retrieved on 2007-07-17.
^ Ali, A (1996). "Vulnerability of Bangladesh to climate change and sea level rise through tropical cyclones and storm surges". Water, Air, & Soil Pollution 92 (1–2): 171–179. doi:10.1007/BF00175563.
^ Summit Elevations: Frequent Internet Errors. Retrieved 2006-04-13.
^ IUCN (1997). "Sundarban wildlife sanctuaries Bangladesh". World Heritage Nomination-IUCN Technical Evaluation.
^ Alexander, David E. (1999) [1993]. "The Third World". Natural Disasters. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. pp. 532. ISBN 0412047519. OCLC 27974924 43782866. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=gWHsuGTcF34C&pg=PA532&dq=bangladesh+natural+disasters&sig=X3qyOQhMo_cmSyJDqrRvxujAUKI. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.
^ Haggett, Peter (2002) [2002]. "The Indian Subcontinent". Encyclopedia of World Geography. New York: Marshall Cavendish. pp. 2,634. ISBN 0761473084. OCLC 46578454. http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=IROIY4ONOSEC&pg=PA2634&dq=bangladesh+flood+reason&lr=&as_brr=3&sig=qahkOCuykzX2R1JYNREsdB8_yEc#PPA2635,M1. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.
^ Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan 2008 Ministry of Environment and Forests Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh, September, 2008.
^ “Another Major Cyclone, Bangladesh Worries About Climate Change” PBS News Hour, 2008 http://www.pbs.org/newshour/bb/environment/jan-june08/bangladesh_03-28.html
^ "Reproductive Health and Rights is Fundamental for Sound Economic Development and Poverty Alleviation," United Nations Population Fund. Retrieved July 17, 2007.
^ "Jute". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/J_0135.htm. Retrieved on 2006-07-14.
^ Roland, B (2005). "Bangladesh Garments Aim to Compete". BBC. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4118969.stm.
^ Rahman, S (2004). "Global Shift: Bangladesh Garment Industry in Perspective". Asian Affairs 26 (1): 75–91.
^ Begum, N (2001). "Enforcement of Safety Regulations in Garment sector in Bangladesh". Proc. Growth of Garment Industry in Bangladesh: Economic and Social dimension. pp. 208–226.
^ "South Korea, Another `BRIC' in Global Wall". 2005-12-09. http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000177&sid=aoJ4WG5LSf1s&refer=market_insight.
^ Annual Report 2004–2005, Bangladesh Bank
^ Schreiner, Mark (2003). "A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of the Grameen Bank of Bangladesh". Development Policy Review 21 (3): 357–382. doi:10.1111/1467-7679.00215.
^ "Countries of the World (by highest population density)". WorldAtlus.com. February 2006. http://www.worldatlas.com/aatlas/populations/ctydensityh.htm. Retrieved on 2007-11-30.
^ "World Health Report 2005". World Health Organization. http://www.who.int/whr/2005/en/.
^ "Background Note: Bangladesh". Bureau of South and Central Asian Affairs (March 2008). Accessed June 11, 2008. This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
^ Rashiduzzaman, M (1998). "Bangladesh's Chittagong Hill Tracts Peace Accord: Institutional Features and Strategic Concerns". Asian Survey 38 (7): 653–670. doi:10.1525/as.1998.38.7.01p0370e.
^ Gazi, R; ZH Chowdhury, SMN Alam, E Chowdhury, F Ahmed, S Begum (2001) (PDF). Trafficking of Women and Children in Bangladesh, Special Publication No. 11. ICDDR,B. http://www.usaid.gov/bd/files/trafficking_overview.pdf.
^ AI Index: ASA 16/005/2004, Amnesty International
^ "report covering the issue". BBC News. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4823828.stm.
^ Constitution of Bangladesh, Part I, Article 5.
^ ^a ^b S. M. Mehdi Hasan, Condition of English in Bangladesh: Second Language or Foreign Language. Retrieved July 17, 2007.
^ Nickson, R; J McArthur, W Burgess, KM Ahmed, P Ravenscroft, M Rahman (1998). "Arsenic poisoning of Bangladesh groundwater". Nature 395 (6700): 338. doi:10.1038/26387.
^ "2005 Human Development Report". UNDP. http://hdr.undp.org/statistics/data/countries.cfm?c=BGD.
^ UNICEF: Bangladesh Statistics.
^ Ahmed, A; C del Nino (2002). The food for education programme in Bangladesh: An evaluation of its impact on educational attainment and food security, FCND DP No. 138. International Food Policy Research Institute.
^ Khandker, S; M Pitt, N Fuwa (2003). Subsidy to Promote Girls’ Secondary Education: The Female Stipend Program in Bangladesh. World Bank, Washington, DC.
^ Bangladesh Bureau of Educational Information and Statistics
^ [1] State religion
^ "Statistics Bangladesh 2006" (PDF). Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics. http://www.bbs.gov.bd/dataindex/stat_bangladesh.pdf. Retrieved on 2008.
^ "The Rising Tide of Islamism in Bangladesh". Hudson Institute. http://www.futureofmuslimworld.com/research/pubID.42/pub_detail.asp. Retrieved on 2007.
^ World Gazetteer:Bangladesh
^ Hasan, Laila (2003), "Dance", in Islam, Sirajul, Banglapedia: National encyclopedia of Bangladesh, Dhaka: Asiatic Society of Bangladesh, ISBN 9843205766, OCLC 52727562
^ Feature film in Banglapedia
^ "Cinemas in Bangladesh, Pakistan squeezed by Bollywood". NewIndPress.Com. 2006-09-25. http://www.newindpress.com/NewsItems.asp?ID=IE420060925014228&Page=4&Title=Features+-+People+%26+Lifestyle&Topic=0. Retrieved on 2008-05-02.
^ Newspapers and periodicals in Banglapedia

National Media ( Electronic)

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Bangladesh Television (BTV), Dhaka450, West RampuraDhaka, BangladeshTel. 9331290, 408900, 9343380, 413151, 418404, 404812
Fax: 88-02-8312927 Bangladesh Television (BTV), Chittagong27, Nasirabad Housing Society, Road No.3Chittagong, BangladeshTel. 611751 Fax: 6572338

NTV
BSEC BHABAN (6th Floor) 102 Kazi Nazrul Islam Avenue, Karwan Bazar Dhaka-1215, Bangladesh Phone : 9143381-5 Fax : 880-2-9143386-7E-mail: info@ntvbd.com

ATN Bangla

C/O Multi Media Production CompanyWasha Bhaban, 89 Kazi Nazrul Islam Avenue,Kawranbazar, Dhaka - 1215, BangladeshTel. 8111207, 388981 Fax: 880-2-8111876, 9128585E-mail: atn@dhaka.agni.com

Ekushey Television Limited (ETV)
Erectors House, 5th Floor18 Kamal Attatuk Avenue,Dhaka - 1213, Bangladesh phone Dhaka, BangladeshTel. 9884080/9881131/8824561 Fax: 9885482E- mail: etv@ekusheytv.com

Channel i
C/O Impress Teleflim62/A, Shiddeswari Road,Dhaka -1217, BangladeshTel. 9332444, 414370
Ruposhi Bangla Television
Broadcasts Bangla television program in New York since 1987. Now its also available in Bangladesh and part of Asia

National Icons Of Bangladesh

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The National Emblem of the People's Republic of Bangladesh is the national flower Shapla (water Lily) surrounded by two sheaves of rice, four stars and a bud with three tender leaves.

The National Parliament (Sangsad Bhaban) is the seat of the government. Situated at the center of Dhaka city, it is an architectural wonder. It was designed by the famous American architect Louis Kahn

The Water Lily (shapla) is the national flower of Bangladesh.

It is found almost in every water body in the country.

Shaheed Minar (Martyrs Memorial): It has always been the source of our national inspiration. We come here to commemorate Language Martyrs of 1952.

The National Monument reminds of those who sacrificed their lives for the independence. Situated at Savar near Dhaka, it is a tourist spot

Worldwide Known Royal Bengal Tiger is the national animal of Bangladesh. This majestic beast finds its home in mangrove forests of the Sundarbans in the southern part of the country.

The Doel ( magpie robin) is the national bird of Bangladesh. It is famous for its sweet look and melodious whistle and is found everywhere especially in rural Bangladesh

A bridge on the river Jamuna was a long cherished desire of Bangalees. Ultimately the dream came true. Two detached parts of Bangladesh are now connected by Jamuna Multipurpose Bridge. The biggest of its kind, this Bridge is one of our greatest achievements.

CAPITAL OF BANGLADESH

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Dhaka is the capital and largest city of Bangladesh.

Today's Dhaka has a long story of evolution. It was founded during the 10th century. It served as the Mughal capital of Bengal from 1608 to 1704.Before coming under British rule in 1765 it was a trading center for British, French, and Dutch colonialism . In 1905 it was again named the capital of Bengal, and in 1956 it became the capital of East Pakistan. During the Bangladesh war of independence in1971 the city suffered a heavy damage. In 1982 the spelling was changed from ' Dacca' to 'Dhaka'.
Dhaka is located in the geographic center of the country. It is in the great deltaic region of the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers. The city is within the monsoon climate zone, with an annual average temperature of 25 deg C (77 deg F) and monthly means varying between 18 deg C (64 deg F) in January and 29 deg C (84 deg F) in August. Nearly 80% of the annual average rainfall of 1,854 mm (73 in) occurs between May and September.

Dhaka is located in one of the world's leading rice- and jute-growing regions. Its industries include textiles (jute, muslin, cotton) and food processing, especially rice milling. A variety of other consumer goods are also manufactured here. The Muslim influence is reflected in the more than 700 mosques and historic buildings found throughout the city. The University of Dhaka (1921) and several technical schools and museums are located here.
Attractions of Dhaka
Mosques : Dhaka has several hundred mosques. Prominent are Baitull Mukarram-National Mosque, the seven Domed Mosque (17th century), Star Mosque (18th century) , Chawkbazar Mosque and Huseni Dalan Mosque.
Lalbagh Fort : It was built in 1678 A.D. by Prince Mohammad Azam, son of Mughal emperor Aurangazeb. The fort was the scene of bloody battle during the first war of independence (1857) when 260 sepoys stationed here backed by the people revolted against British forces. Outstanding among the monuments of the Lalbagh are the tomb of Pari Bibi , Lalbagh Mosque, Audience Hall and Hammam of Nawab Shaista Khan now housing a museum.
Bahadur Shah Park: It was built to commemorate the martyrs of the first liberation war (1857-59) against British rule. It is said that the revolting sepoys and their civil compatriots were publicly hanged here.
Bangabandhu Memorial Museum : The residence of the father of the nation Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman at Dhanmondi has been turned into a musuam. It contains rare collection of personal effects and photographs of his lifetime.
Mukti Juddha Museum : Situated at Segun Bagicha area of the city the museum contains rare photographs of Liberation war and items used by the freedom fighters during the period.
Ahsan Manzil Museum : On the bank of the river Buriganga in Dhaka the pink majestic Ahsan Manzil has been renovated and turned into a museum recently. It is an example of the nations rich cultural heritage. It was the home of the Nawab of Dhaka and a silent spectator to many events. The renovated Ahsan Manzil is a monument of immense historical beauty. It has 31 rooms with a huge dome atop which can be seen from miles around. It now has 23 galleries displaying portraits, furniture and household articles and utensils used by the Nawab.
Curzon Hall : Beautiful architectural building named after Lord Curzon. It now houses the Science Faculty of Dhaka University.
Old High Court Building : Originally built as the residence of the British Governor, it illustrates a happy blend of European and Mughal architecture.
Dhaka Zoo : Popularly known as Mirpur Zoo. Colorful and attractive collections of different local and foreign species of animals and birds including the majestic Royal Bengal Tiger are available here.
National Museum : Located at the central point of the city, the museum contains a large number of interesting collections including sculptures and paintings of the Hindu, Buddhist and Muslim periods.
Botanical Garden : Built on an area of 205 acres of land at Mirpur and adjacent to Dhaka Zoo. One can have a look at the zoo and the botanical garden in one trip.
National Park : Situated at Rejendrapur, 40 km. north of Dhaka city , this is a vast (1,600 acres) national recreational forest with facilities for picnic and rowing etc.
Shahid Minar : Symbol of Bengali nationalism. This monument was built to commemorate the martyrs of the historic Language movement of 1952. Hundreds and thousands of people with floral wreaths and bouquet gather on 21 February every year to pay respect in a solemn atmosphere. Celebrations begin at zero hour of midnight.
National Poet's Graveyard : Revolutionary poet Kazi Nazrul Islam died on the 29 August 1976 and was buried here. The graveyard is adjacent to the Dhaka University Mosque.
Suhrawardy Uddyan (Garden) : A Popular Park. The oath of independence of Bangladesh was taken here and Father of the Nation Bangabandhu Sheik Mujibur Rahman gave clarion call for independence on this occasion on the 7th March 1971. The place is famous for its lush verdure and gentle breezes. Eternal Flame to enliven the memory of the martyrs of our Liberation war has been blown here recently.
Mausoleum of National Leaders : Located at the southwestern corner of Suhrawardy Uddyan, it is the eternal resting place of great national leaders, Sher-e-Bangla A.K. Fazlul Haque, Hossain Shahid Suhrawardy and Khaja Nazimuddin.
Banga Bhaban : The official residence of the President, located in the city . One can have an outside view of this grand palace.
Baldha Garden : Unique creation of the late Narendra Narayan Roy, the landlord of Baldha. Year of establishment was 1904. Located in Wari area of Dhaka city, the garden with its rich collection of indigenous and exotic plants is one of the most exciting attraction for naturalists and tourists.
Ramna Green: A vast stretch of green garden surrounded by a serpentine lake near the Sheraton Hotel.
Parliament House : Jatiya Sangsad Bhaban (Parliament House) located at Sher-e-Bangla Nagar has distinctive architectural features. Designed by the famous architect Louis I. Kahn, it may be called an architectural wonder of this region.
Science Museum : The museum is a modern learning center related to the latest scientific discoveries. It is situated at Agargaon.
National Memorial : It locates at Savar, 35, km. from Dhaka city. The memorial designed by architect Moinul Hossain is dedicated to the sacred memory of the millions of unknown martyrs of the war of liberation.

THE REPUBLIC

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THE REPUBLIC

1.The Republic.
Bangladesh is a unitary, independent, sovereign Republic to be known as the People's Republic of Bangladesh.

2. The territory of the Republic.
The territory of the Republic shall comprise-
The territories which immediately before the proclamation of independence on the 26th day of March, 1971 constituted East Pakistan 4[and the territories referred to as included territories in the Constitution (Third Amendment) Act, 1974, but excluding the territories referred to as excluded territories in that Act; and]
such other territories as may become included in Bangladesh.

2A.The state religion.
The state religion of the Republic is Islam, but other religions may be practiced in peace and harmony in the Republic.

3. The state language.
The state language of the Republic is Bangla.

4. National anthem, flag and emblem.
The national anthem of the Republic is the first ten lines of "Amar Sonar Bangla".The national flag of the Republic shall consist of a circle, coloured red throughout its area, resting on a green background.The national emblem of the Republic is the national flower Shapla (nympoea-nouchali) resting on water, having on each side and ear of paddy and being surmounted by three connected leaves of jute with two stars on each side of the leaves. Subject to the foregoing clauses, provisions relating to the national anthem, flag and emblem shall be made by law.

4A.Portrait.
Portrait of the President shall be preserved and displayed at the offices of the President, Prime Minister and Speaker, and all embassies and missions of Bangladesh abroad.
In addition to clause , Portrait, of only the Prime Minister, shall be preserved and displayed at the offices of the President and the Speaker, and in head and branch offices of all government and semi-government offices, autonomous bodies, statutory public authorities, government educational institutions, embassies and missions of Bangladesh abroad.

5. The capital.
The capital of the Republic is 7[Dhaka]. The boundaries of the capital shall be determined by law.

8. Citizenship.
The citizenship of Bangladesh shall be determined and regulated by law. The citizens of Bangladesh shall be known as Bangladeshis.

7. Supremacy of the Constitution.
All powers in the Republic belong to the people, and their exercise on behalf of the people shall be effected only under, and by the authority of, this Constitution. This Constitution is, as the solemn expression of the will of the people, the supreme law of the Republic, and if any other law is inconsistent with this Constitution and other law shall, to the extent of the inconsistency, be void.

National Flag

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The national flag of Bangladesh is bottle green in color and rectangular in size with the length to width ratio of 10:6. It bears a red circle on the background of green. The color in the background represents the greenery of Bangladesh while the red circle symbolizes the rising sun and the sacrifice of lives in our freedom fight. The national flag was designed by Kamrul Hasan.

The Flag of Bangladesh
Prescribed sizes of the flag for buildings are 305cm X 183cm, 152cm X 91cm and 76cm X 46cm and for vehicles are 38cm X 23cm and 25cm X 15cm.
At the very outset the flag had a different look. There was a golden colored map of Bangladesh at the center of the red circle. This was the original design of the flag of Bangladesh under which the valiant freedom fighters fought during the liberation war.
Previous look of the flag
The national flag was first hoisted on the 3rd of March 1971 by ASM Abdur Rab, the then Vice President of Dhaka University Students´ Union, at the historic 'Bat tala' in Dhaka University campus. This flag was also raised at the then Ramna Racecourse (now a park renamed as Shuhrawardy Uddayan) when Sheikh Mujibur Rahman gave his historic speech "this time our struggle is for liberation."
The flag of Bangladesh was first hoisted in the UN September 1974. China used her veto against admission of Bangladesh in the UN 1972 and repeated in the year 1973. The Bangladesh flag appeared later in the UNs´ stamp series "Flag of the member state".

History of Bangladesh

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Bangladesh came to today's shape through a long history of political evolution. Bengal was probably the wealthiest part of the subcontinent up till the 16th century. The area's early history featured a succession of Indian empires, internal squabbling, and a tussle between Hinduism and Buddhism for dominance. All of this was just a prelude to the unstoppable tide of Islam which washed over northern India at the end of the 12th century. Mohammed Bakhtiar Khalzhi from Turkistan captured Bengal in 1199 with only 20 men.
Under the Mughal viceroys, art and literature flourished, overland trade expanded and Bengal was opened to world maritime trade - the latter marking the death knell of Mughal power as Europeans began to establish themselves in the region. The Portuguese arrived as early as the 15th century but were ousted in 1633 by local opposition. The East India Company negotiated terms to establish a fortified trading post in Calcutta in 1690.

The decline of Mughal power led to greater provincial autonomy, heralding the rise of the independent dynasty of the nawabs of Bengal. Humble East India Company clerk Robert Clive ended up effectively ruling Bengal when one of the impetuous nawabs attacked the thriving British enclave in Calcutta and stuffed those unlucky enough not to escape in an underground cellar. Clive retook Calcutta a year later and the British Government replaced the East India Company following the Indian Mutiny in 1857.
The Britons established an organizational and social structure unparalleled in Bengal, and Calcutta became one of the most important centers for commerce, education and culture in the subcontinent. However, many Bangladeshi historians blame the British dictatorial agricultural policies and promotion of the semi-feudal zamindar system for draining the region of its wealth and damaging its social fabric. The British presence was a relief to the minority Hindus but a catastrophe for the Muslims. The Hindus cooperated with the Brits, entering British educational institutions and studying the English language, but the Muslims refused to cooperate, and rioted whenever crops failed or another local product was rendered unprofitable by government policy.

At the closure of World War II it was clear that European colonialism had run its course and Indian independence was inevitable. Independence was attained in 1947 but the struggle was bitter and divisive, especially in Bengal where the fight for self-government was complicated by internal religious conflict. The British, realizing any agreement between the Muslims and Hindus was impossible, decided to partition the subcontinent. That Bengal and Punjab, the two overwhelmingly Muslim regions, lay on opposite sides of India was only one stumbling block. The situation was complicated in Bengal where the major cash crop, jute, was produced in the Muslim-dominated east, but processed and shipped from the Hindu-dominated city of Calcutta in the west.
Inequalities between the two regions i.e. East and West Pakistan soon stirred up a sense of Bengali nationalism that had not been reckoned with during the push for Muslim independence. When the Pakistan government declared that `Urdu and only Urdu' would be the national language, the Bangla-speaking Bengalis decided it was time to assert their cultural identity. The drive to reinstate the Bangla language metamorphosed into a push for self-government and when the Awami League, a nationalistic party, won a majority in the 1971 national elections, the president of Pakistan, faced with this unacceptable result, postponed opening the National Assembly. Riots and strikes broke out in East Pakistan, the independent state of Bangladesh was unilaterally announced, and Pakistan sent troops to quell the rebellion.
The ensuing war was one of the shortest and bloodiest of modern times, with the Pakistan army occupying all major towns, using napalm against villages, and slaughtering and raping villagers. Bangladeshis refer to Pakistan's brutal tactics as attempted genocide. Border clashes between Pakistan and India increased as Indian-trained Bangladeshi guerrillas crossed the border. When the Pakistani air force made a pre-emptive attack on Indian forces, open warfare ensued. Indian troops crossed the border and the Pakistani army found itself being attacked from the east by the Indian army, the north and east by guerrillas and from all quarters by the civilian population. In 11 days it was all over and Bangladesh, the world's 139th country, officially came into existence. Sheikh Mujib, one of the founders of the Awami League, became the country's first prime minister in January 1972 ; he was assassinated in 1975 during a period of crisis
The ruined and decimated new country experienced famine in 1973-74, followed by martial law, successive military coups and political assassinations. In 1979, Bangladesh began a short-lived experiment with democracy led by the overwhelmingly popular President Zia, who established good relationships with the West and the oil-rich Islamic countries. His assassination in 1981 ultimately returned the country to a military government that periodically made vague announcements that elections would be held `soon'. While these announcements were rapturously greeted by the local press as proof that Bangladesh was indeed a democracy, nothing came of them until 1991. That year the military dictator General Ershad was forced to resign by an unprecedented popular movement led by the Bangladesh Nationalist Party and the Awami League.
Democracy was re-established and the economy ticked along at a 4.5% growth rate, which hardly made it an 'Asian tiger' but was at least respectable. Political dog-fighting between the BNP and the Awami League became acrimonious in the run up to national elections in February 1996 leaving the country strike-ridden and rudderless. The election was marred by violence and boycotted by the three main opposition parties, resulting in a BNP shoo-in. However, low voter turnout and reports of ballot-box stuffing by polling officials raised serious questions about the government's legitimacy and in April 1996 Prime Minister Begum Khaleda agreed to stand down and appointed an interim caretaker administration, pending new elections scheduled for 12 June 1996.In the elections Awami League got the largest number of seats. Sheikh Hasina Wazed, the leader of the Awami League, was sworn in as the Prime Minister of Bangladesh Government.

BANGLADESH IN GENERAL

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Official Name
The People's Republic Of Bangladesh

Capital
Dhaka (Area 414 sq. km. Master plan 777 sq.km.)

Currency
Currency unit is Taka. Notes are of 1,2,5,10,20,50,100,500 and 1000 Taka. Coins are of 1,5,10,25,50 and 100 Poisha (100 Poisha = 1 Taka)

Language
Bangla is the state language. English is also widely spoken and understood. Arabic is read and spoken for religious purposes

Population
Total estimated population 130 million.

Religions
Muslim 88.3%, Hindu 10.5%, others 1.2%

Area
Total: 144,000 sq km Land: 133,910 sq km Water: 10,090 sq km

Location
Latitude from 20 degree 34' to 26 degree 38' north. Longitude from 88 degree 01' to 92 degree 41' east.

Boundary
Bounded by India from the north, east and west, Burma from the south-east and the Bay of Bengal from the south .

Climate
Tropical; cool, dry winter (October to March); hot, humid summer (March to June); cool, rainy monsoon (June to October)

Rainfall
Lowest 47" and highest 136"

National Days
National Martyrs Day ( February 21)
Independence Day ( March 26 )
Victory Day ( December 16)

Principal Rivers
Padma, Meghna, Jamuna, Brahmaputra, Madhumati, Surma and Kushiara

Principal Crops
Rice, jute, tobacco, tea, sugarcane, vegetables, potato, pulses, etc.

Fruits
Mango, banana, pineapple, jack-fruit, water-melon, green coconut, guava, lichis, etc.

Major Industries
Jute, sugar, paper, textiles, fertilizers, cigarette, cement, steel, natural gas, oil-refinery, newsprint, power generation, rayon, matches, fishing and food processing, leather, soap, carpet, timber, ship-building, telephone, etc.

Airports
Zia International Airport, Dhaka,
Chittagong International Airport,
Sylhet International Airport
and domestic airports at Jessore, Sylhet, Cox's Bazar, Rajshahi and Saidpur

Sea Ports
Chittagong
Mongla

Tourist Interests
Longest sea beach, colorful tribal life, centuries' old archeological sites, the Sundarbans (home of the Royal Bengal Tigers and spotted deer), largest tea gardens, interesting riverine life, etc.